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Facts So Romantic On [57]Ideas

How Maxwell’s Demon Continues to Startle Scientists

Posted By Jonathan O'Callaghan on Apr 29, 2021

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Reprinted with permission from Quanta Magazine’s [66]Abstractions blog.
The thorny thought experiment has been turned into a real experiment —
one that physicists use to probe the physics of
information.Illustration by Samuel Velasco / Quanta Magazine

The universe bets on disorder. Imagine, for example, dropping a
thimbleful of red dye into a swimming pool. All of those dye molecules
are going to slowly spread throughout the water.

Physicists quantify this tendency to spread by counting the number of
possible ways the dye molecules can be arranged. There’s one possible
state where the molecules are crowded into the thimble. There’s another
where, say, the molecules settle in a tidy clump at the pool’s bottom.
But there are uncountable billions of permutations where the molecules
spread out in different ways throughout the water. If the universe
chooses from all the possible states at random, you can bet that it’s
going to end up with one of the vast set of disordered possibilities.

Seen in this way, the inexorable rise in entropy, or disorder, as
quantified by the second law of thermodynamics, takes on an almost
mathematical certainty. So of course physicists are constantly trying
to break it.

One almost did. A thought experiment devised by the Scottish physicist
James Clerk Maxwell in 1867 [67]stumped scientists for 115 years. And
even after a solution was found, physicists have continued to use
“Maxwell’s demon” to push the laws of the universe to their limits.

In the thought experiment, Maxwell imagined splitting a room full of
gas into two compartments by erecting a wall with a small door. Like
all gases, this one is made of individual particles. The average speed
of the particles corresponds to the temperature of the gas—faster is
hotter. But at any given time, some particles will be moving more
slowly than others.

What if, suggested Maxwell, a tiny imaginary creature—a demon, as it
was later [68]called—sat at the door. Every time it saw a fast-moving
particle approaching from the left-hand side, it opened the door and
let it into the right-hand compartment. And every time a slow-moving
particle approached from the right, the demon let it into the left-hand
compartment.

After a while, the left-hand compartment would be full of slow, cold
particles, and the right-hand compartment would grow hot. This isolated
system would seem to grow more orderly, not less, because two
distinguishable compartments have more order than two identical
compartments. Maxwell had created a system that appeared to defy the
rise of entropy, and thus the laws of the universe.

“He tried to prove a system where the entropy would decrease,”
said [69]Laia Delgado Callico, a physicist at King’s College London.
“It’s a paradox.”

Two advances would be crucial to solving Maxwell’s demon. The first was
by the American mathematician Claude Shannon, regarded as the
[70]founder of information theory. In 1948, Shannon showed that the
information content of a message could be quantified with what he
called the information entropy. “In the 19th century, no one knew about
information,” said [71]Takahiro Sagawa, a physicist at the University
of Tokyo. “The modern understanding of Maxwell’s demon was established
by Shannon’s work.”

The second vital piece of the puzzle was the principle of erasure. In
1961, the German American physicist Rolf Landauer showed that any
logically irreversible computation, such as the erasing of information
from a memory, would result in a minimal nonzero amount of work
converted into heat dumped into the environment, and a corresponding
rise in entropy. Landauer’s erasure principle provided a tantalizing
link between information and thermodynamics. “Information is physical,”
he later [72]proclaimed.

In 1982, the American physicist Charles Bennett put the pieces of the
puzzle [73]together. He realized that Maxwell’s demon was at core an
information-processing machine: It needed to record and store
information about individual particles in order to decide when to open
and close the door. Periodically it would need to erase this
information. According to Landauer’s erasure principle, the rise in
entropy from the erasure would more than compensate for the decrease in
entropy caused by the sorting of the particles. “You need to pay,”
said [74]Gonzalo Manzano, a physicist at the Institute for Quantum
Optics and Quantum Information in Vienna. The demon’s need to make room
for more information inexorably led to a net increase in disorder.

Then in the 21st century, with the thought experiment solved, the real
experiments began. “The most important development is we can now
realize Maxwell’s demon in laboratories,” said Sagawa.
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In 2007 scientists [75]used a light-powered gate to demonstrate the
idea of Maxwell’s demon in action; in 2010, another team devised a way
to use the energy produced by the demon’s information to [76]coax a
bead uphill; and in 2016 scientists applied the idea of Maxwell’s demon
to two compartments containing not gas, but light.

“We switched the roles of matter and light,” said [77]Vlatko Vedral, a
physicist at the University of Oxford and one of the study’s
co-authors. The researchers were ultimately able to [78]charge a very
small battery.

Others wondered if there might be less demanding ways to use
information to extract useful work from a similar system. And research
published in February 2021 in [79]Physical Review Letters seems to have
found a way to do so. The work makes the demon into a gambler.

The team, led by Manzano, wondered if there was a way to implement
something like Maxwell’s demon but without the information
requirements. They imagined a two-compartment system with a door, as
before. But in this case, the door would open and close on its own.
Sometimes particles would randomly separate themselves into hotter and
colder compartments. The demon could only watch this process and decide
when to turn the system off. In theory this process could create a
small temperature imbalance, and therefore a useful heat engine, if the
demon was smart about when to end the experiment and lock any
temperature imbalance in place, much as a smart gambler on a hot streak
knows when to leave the table. “You can either play all night on the
roulette table, or you can stop if you win $100,” said [80]Édgar
Roldán, a physicist at the International Center for Theoretical Physics
in Italy who was a co-author on the study. “We’re saying we don’t need
such a complicated device as Maxwell’s demon to extract work in the
second law. We can be more relaxed.” The researchers then implemented
such a gambling demon in a nanoelectronic device, to show it was
possible.

Ideas like this could prove useful in designing more efficient thermal
systems, like refrigerators, or even in developing more advanced
computer chips, which may be approaching a fundamental limit dictated
by Landauer’s principle.

For the time being, though, our laws of the universe are safe, even
when placed under the greatest scrutiny. What has changed is our
understanding of information in the universe, and with it our
appreciation of Maxwell’s demon, first a troublesome paradox, and now
an invaluable concept—one that has helped to illuminate the remarkable
link between the physical world and information.

Jonathan O’Callaghan is a freelance space and science journalist based
in London. He writes regularly for a number of publications
including The New York Times, Scientific American, New
Scientist, Forbes, and Wired. You can read more of his work or get in
contact at [81]jonathanocallaghan.com, or find him on
Twitter [82]@Astro_Jonny.

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