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How Does Age Change How You Learn?

  February, 2020
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  As you get older, learning often feels harder than it used to. Why is
  that? What changes in the brain as we age that makes acquiring new
  information harder? Is there anything we can do to avoid our minds
  slowing down?

  This is a topic I’ve been asked about a lot, but until recently one
  that I didn’t know much about. Aging wasn’t a topic I spent much time
  researching in my book, preferring to focus on principles of learning
  that are universal.

  Recently, however, I decided to dig into some of the research on
  cognitive aging to see how our learning is impacted by getting older.

Learning Slows with Age

  The first clear finding is that the feeling that one is getting slower
  mentally as we age is not an illusion—countless studies reinforce the
  fact that most aspects of mental processing get worse as we age:[25]^1

  Interestingly, not all aspects of thinking get worse with age.
  Accumulated knowledge of the world increases until nearly the end of
  our lives, as you can see in the figure above with vocabulary size.

  This is a trade-off between what researchers call fluid intelligence
  and crystallized intelligence. Even if our minds slow down as we get
  older, we accumulate more experience. We know more as we age, even if
  we’re slower at learning and processing new information. Wisdom
  increases even as wit declines.

What Gets Worse With Age?

  There are different hypotheses about how our minds tend to get worse as
  we get older. A simple one is the idea that processing speed slows down
  as we age—neurons lose mylenation and so the signals that carry the
  currents of our thinking slow down.[26]^2

  Other researchers disagree, arguing that aging impacts some brain areas
  more severely than others, resulting in specific deficits of cognition
  rather than an overall decline.

  The frontal aging hypothesis argues that the frontal cortex is hit
  harder by aging.[27]^3 The frontal cortex is involved in many
  functions, but a key one is in asserting top-down executive control
  over our actions. This is often associated with the deliberate effort
  it takes to override habits or consciously keep intentions in mind when
  completing tasks.

  Researchers Todd Braver and Robert West argue for a goal maintenance
  account of cognitive aging.[28]^4 Following the frontal aging
  hypothesis, this suggests that what is harder to do as you get older is
  to maintain and switch the goals associated with a task. This results
  in older individuals struggling more with [29]Stroop tasks, where an
  automatic habit needs to be overridden by instructions:

  Additionally, older individuals are hurt more by multitasking than
  younger people.[30]^5 This seems to be because multitasking requires
  switching the goals of the task at hand over a short period of time.
  Since older people have a harder time maintaining these, switching
  tasks frequently is particularly hard.

  Another deficit observed in older individuals is difficulty with
  binding information that occurs in a combined context.[31]^6 Chunking
  is one of the most important parts of learning new information, so the
  fact that this becomes harder with age may explain why learning new
  things feels more difficult as we get older.

  Difficulty binding information together to store in long-term memories
  also impacts our ability to remember our life events. Simple
  information is less impacted by aging, but as we get older we may start
  to forget the context in which something was learned.[32]^7 The person
  you walk by looks familiar, but you forget where you met him before.

  The story isn’t all gloomy. In addition to crystallized knowledge,
  older people seem to be better at emotional regulation as well.[33]^8
  Since managing emotions is an important part of success at many tasks,
  this suggests older people may be slower but surer at working on goals
  that have a bit of frustration baked in.

Do Different People Experience Decline Differently?

  Do all people experience cognitive decline uniformly? Or do some
  people’s minds slip while others stay sharp much longer?

  There seems to be a little conflict on this point in the research. One
  literature review I found argues in favor of cognitive decline being
  mostly linear as we age and not increasing in variance.[34]^9 This
  suggests that, absent illness, we’re all on roughly the same trajectory
  of cognitive slowdown.
  The lefthand graphs show decline of cognitive function, while righthand
  graphs show the variability. At least according to this study,
  variability doesn’t show dramatic increases with age.

  This review, in contrast, seems to differ.[35]^10 The authors argue
  that variance increases with age, which goes with our normal intuition
  that some people seem to experience large declines in thinking with
  time while others fair much better. This seems to match up with other
  evidence that most factors associated with aging experience
  [36]increasing variability over time.

Redundancy and Cognitive Decline

  One reason for the observation that some people seem to age mostly with
  minds intact and others notice dramatic slowdowns may be that the brain
  has a lot of redundancy built in. On a physical level, brain volume may
  be declining, but that this may not create noticeable difficulties for
  some time.

  Cognitive reserve is the concept used by researchers to note that many
  individuals who experience decline on physical measures may not have
  related mental decline owing to this robustness.[37]^11

  One way you can see this is in fMRI scans which show that older
  individuals’ frontal cortices are more active than younger people’s on
  comparable tasks.[38]^12 Since frontal cortex decline is common in
  aging, what might be happening is that the brain is compensating for
  reduced efficiency by increasing activation.

  Researchers note that education seems to have a protective effect on
  aging.[39]^13 This may be because accumulated knowledge from education
  contributes to cognitive reserve, so as our minds decline, those who
  learned more when they were younger are better able to cope. Of course,
  another explanation might also be that those with sharper minds were
  more likely to go to school, and that education has no causal effect.

How Can Older People Reduce the Impact of Cognitive Decline?

  There is some evidence that some aspects of cognitive aging can be
  overcome with training.[40]^14 However, I wouldn’t hold my breath for a
  magic fix. Age impacts our minds just as it does our bodies. Just as
  there is no exercise regimen that will allow a septuagenarian to
  compete in the Olympics, I doubt there are universal remedies for our
  cognitive declines.

  However, the situation doesn’t seem to be completely without hope
  either. There do seem to be some things you can do to help your mental
  functioning.

  The first is preventing cognitive decline. Exercise and eat well when
  you’re younger. Learning more when you’re younger may minimize
  cognitive decline. Even if learning doesn’t prevent declines in fluid
  intelligence, it still enhances crystallized intelligence, giving you
  greater knowledge in your older years.[41]^15

  The second is to strategically control your environment to minimize the
  specific difficulties associated with aging. In particular, you should:
   1. Avoid multitasking or environments with likely distractors. Since
      goal maintenance seems to be a central problem of aging, it means
      the older you are the more you benefit from an environment that
      allows your mind to focus on the problem at hand.
   2. Be more strategic with creating cues and reminders for important
      information. Proactive memory, where you set the intention to
      recall something later, given a specific prompt, is particularly
      affected by aging. This suggests engineering your environment to
      remind you of your goals and tasks is more important as one ages.
   3. Be more explicit in organizing what you want to learn. Binding
      pieces of information together to be recalled as a single chunk can
      happen both automatically and deliberately. Since binding is harder
      with age, it may make more sense to be deliberate about organizing
      information you want to learn.

  A third idea relates to how you might allocate your learning throughout
  your entire lifetime. Since fluid intelligence and complex working
  memory peak in early adulthood, this suggests that time might be the
  best for learning skills where those are more important, such as
  mathematics.

  In contrast, for subjects that require mostly accumulated knowledge and
  build off of past habits of thinking, age may be an asset rather than a
  liability. History and law, for instance, may benefit more from this
  accumulated wisdom and be more amenable to improvements later in life.

  The idea that our minds change as we age, and thus change the relative
  ease of learning certain subjects shouldn’t be viewed fatalistically.
  Obviously, learning history when you’re fifteen or calculus when you’re
  fifty are both great. But understanding how age selectively impacts
  cognition can also help us to minimize the downsides of decline.

Footnotes

   1. Salthouse, Timothy A. “Selective review of cognitive aging.”
      Journal of the International neuropsychological Society 16, no. 5
      (2010): 754-760.
   2. Salthouse, Timothy A. “The processing-speed theory of adult age
      differences in cognition.” Psychological review 103, no. 3 (1996):
      403.
   3. West, Robert. “In defense of the frontal lobe hypothesis of
      cognitive aging.” Journal of the International Neuropsychological
      Society 6, no. 6 (2000): 727-729.
   4. Braver, Todd S., and Robert West. “Working memory, executive
      control, and aging.” In The handbook of aging and cognition, pp.
      319-380. Psychology Press, 2011.
   5. Drag, Lauren L., and Linas A. Bieliauskas. “Contemporary review
      2009: cognitive aging.” Journal of geriatric psychiatry and
      neurology 23, no. 2 (2010): 75-93.
   6. Ibid.
   7. Ibid.
   8. Mather, Mara, and Laura L. Carstensen. “Aging and motivated
      cognition: The positivity effect in attention and memory.” Trends
      in cognitive sciences 9, no. 10 (2005): 496-502.
   9. Salthouse, Timothy A. “Selective review of cognitive aging.”
      Journal of the International neuropsychological Society 16, no. 5
      (2010): 754-760.
  10. Drag, Lauren L., and Linas A. Bieliauskas. “Contemporary review
      2009: cognitive aging.” Journal of geriatric psychiatry and
      neurology 23, no. 2 (2010): 75-93.
  11. Stern, Yaakov. “Cognitive reserve.” Neuropsychologia 47, no. 10
      (2009): 2015-2028.
  12. Davis, Simon W., Nancy A. Dennis, Sander M. Daselaar, Mathias S.
      Fleck, and Roberto Cabeza. “Que PASA? The posterior–anterior shift
      in aging.” Cerebral cortex 18, no. 5 (2008): 1201-1209.
  13. Habib, Reza, Lars Nyberg, and Lars-Göran Nilsson. “Cognitive and
      non-cognitive factors contributing to the longitudinal
      identification of successful older adults in the Betula study.”
      Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 14, no. 3 (2007):
      257-273.
  14. Erickson, Kirk I., Stanley J. Colcombe, Ruchika Wadhwa, Louis
      Bherer, Matthew S. Peterson, Paige E. Scalf, Jennifer S. Kim,
      Maritza Alvarado, and Arthur F. Kramer. “Training-induced
      functional activation changes in dual-task processing: an FMRI
      study.” Cerebral Cortex 17, no. 1 (2007): 192-204.
  15. Drag, Lauren L., and Linas A. Bieliauskas. “Contemporary review
      2009: cognitive aging.” Journal of geriatric psychiatry and
      neurology 23, no. 2 (2010): 75-93.

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