The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and
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Title: The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir
Author: Sir James McCrone Douie
Release Date: February 10, 2008 [eBook #24562]
Language: English
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THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE AND KASHMIR
by
SIR JAMES DOUIE, M.A., K.C.S.I.
Seema Publications
Seema Publications C-3/19, R. P. Bagh, Delhi-110007.
First Indian Edition 1974
Printed in India at Deluxe Offset Press, Daya Basti, Delhi-110035 and
Published by Seema Publications, Delhi-110007.
EDITOR'S PREFACE
In his opening chapter Sir James Douie refers to the fact that the area
treated in this volume--just one quarter of a million square miles--is
comparable to that of Austria-Hungary. The comparison might be extended;
for on ethnographical, linguistic and physical grounds, the geographical
unit now treated is just as homogeneous in composition as the Dual
Monarchy. It is only in the political sense and by force of the ruling
classes, temporarily united in one monarch, that the term
_Osterreichisch_ could be used to include the Poles of Galicia, the
Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia, the Szeklers, Saxons and more numerous
Rumanians of Transylvania, the Croats, Slovenes and Italians of
"Illyria," with the Magyars of the Hungarian plain.
The term _Punjabi_ much more nearly, but still imperfectly, covers the
people of the Panjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Kashmir and the
associated smaller Native States. The Sikh, Muhammadan and Hindu Jats,
the Kashmiris and the Rajputs all belong to the tall, fair, leptorrhine
Indo-Aryan main stock of the area, merging on the west and south-west
into the Biluch and Pathan Turko-Iranian, and fringed in the hill
districts on the north with what have been described as products of the
"contact metamorphism" with the Mongoloid tribes of Central Asia. Thus,
in spite of the inevitable blurring of boundary lines, the political
divisions treated together in this volume, form a fairly clean-cut
geographical unit.
Sir James Douie, in this work, is obviously living over again the happy
thirty-five years which he devoted to the service of North-West India:
his accounts of the physiography, the flora and fauna, the people and
the administration are essentially the personal recollections of one who
has first studied the details as a District Officer and has afterwards
corrected his perspective, stage by stage, from the successively higher
view-point of a Commissioner, the Chief Secretary, Financial
Commissioner, and finally as Officiating Lieut.-Governor. No one could
more appropriately undertake the task of an accurate and
well-proportioned thumb-nail sketch of North-West India and, what is
equally important to the earnest reader, no author could more obviously
delight in his subject.
T. H. H.
ALDERLEY EDGE,
_March 9th, 1916._
NOTE BY AUTHOR
My thanks are due to the Government of India for permission to use
illustrations contained in official publications. Except where otherwise
stated the numerous maps included in the volume are derived from this
source. My obligations to provincial and district gazetteers have been
endless. Sir Thomas Holdich kindly allowed me to reproduce some of the
charts in his excellent book on _India_. The accuracy of the sections on
geology and coins may be relied on, as they were written by masters of
these subjects, Sir Thomas Holland and Mr R. B. Whitehead, I.C.S.
Chapter XVII could not have been written at all without the help
afforded by Mr Vincent Smith's _Early History of India_. I have
acknowledged my debts to other friends in the "List of Illustrations."
J. M. D.
_8 May 1916._
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
I. Areas and Boundaries 1
II. Mountains, Hills, and Plains 8
III. Rivers 32
IV. Geology and Mineral Resources 50
V. Climate 64
VI. Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees 71
VII. Forests 86
VIII. Beasts, Birds, Fishes, and Insects 90
IX. The People: Numbers, Races, and Languages 96
X. The People: Religions 114
XI. The People: Education 122
XII. Roads and Railways 127
XIII. Canals 132
XIV. Agriculture and Crops 142
XV. Handicrafts and Manufactures 152
XVI. Exports and Imports 159
XVII. History: Pre-Muhammadan Period, 500 B.C.-1000 A.D. 160
XVIII. History: Muhammadan Period, 1000 A.D.-1764 A.D. 168
XIX. History: Sikh Period, 1764 A.D.-1849 A.D. 181
XX. History: British Period, 1849 A.D.-1913 A.D. 188
XXI. Archaeology and Coins 200
XXII. Administration: General 212
XXIII. Administration: Local 217
XXIV. Revenue and Expenditure 219
XXV. Panjab Districts and Delhi 224
XXVI. The Panjab Native States 271
XXVII. The North-west Frontier Province 291
XXVIII. Kashmir and Jammu 314
XXIX. Cities 325
XXX. Other Places of Note 347
TABLES
I. Tribes of Panjab including Native States and of
N.W.F. Province 359
II. Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land
Revenue 360
III. Agricultural Diagrams 362
IV. Crops 364
V. Revenue and Expenditure of Panjab 366
Index 367
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. Arms of Panjab 1
2. Orographical Map (Holdich's _India_) 9
3. Nanga Parvat (Watson's _Gazetteer of Hazara_) 11
4. Burzil Pass (Sir Aurel Stein) 13
5. Rotang Pass (J. Coldstream) 15
6. Mt Haramukh (Sir Aurel Stein) 16
7. R. Jhelam in Kashmir--View towards Mohand Marg
(Sir Aurel Stein) 18
8. Near Naran in Kagan Glen, Hazara (Watson's
_Gazetteer of Hazara_) 19
9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
Kashmir (Holdich's _India_) 21
10. The Khaibar Road (Holdich's _India_) 23
11. Panjab Rivers (Holdich's _India_) 33
12. The Indus at Attock (Sir Aurel Stein) 37
13. Indus at Kafirkot, D.I. Khan dt. (Sir Aurel Stein) 38
14. Fording the River at Lahore (E. B. Francis) 42
15. Bias at Manali (J. Coldstream) 44
16. Rainfall of different Seasons (Blanford) 62, 63
17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January
(Blanford) 65
18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July
(Blanford) 66
19. Banian or Bor trees (Sir Aurel Stein) 75
20. Deodars and Hill Temple (J. Coldstream) 80
21. Firs in Himalaya (J. Coldstream) 82
22. Chinars (Sir Aurel Stein) 83
23. Rhododendron campanulatum (J. Coldstream) 84
24. Big Game in Ladakh 92
25. Yaks (J. Coldstream) 93
26. Black Buck 95
27. Map showing density of population (_Panjab Census
Report_, 1911) 97
28. Map showing increase and decrease of population
(_Panjab Census Report_, 1911) 98
29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
Province (_N.W. Provinces Census Report_, 1911) 99
30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir
(_Kashmir Census Report_, 1911) 100
31. Jat Sikh Officers (Nand Ram) 103
32. Blind Beggar (E. B. Francis) 107
33. Dards (Sir Aurel Stein) 108
34. Map showing races (from _The People of India_,
by Sir Herbert Risley. With permission of
W. Thacker and Co., London) 109
35. Map showing distribution of languages (_Panjab
Census Report_, 1911) 111
36. Map showing distribution of religions (_Panjab
Census Report_, 1911) 115
37. Raghunath Temple, Jammu 116
38. Golden Temple, Amritsar (Mrs B. Roe) 117
39. Mosque in Lahore City (E. B. Francis) 118
40. God and Goddess, Chamba (H.H. the Raja of
Chamba) 120
41. A Kulu godling and his attendants (J. Coldstream) 121
42. A School in the time preceding annexation 124
43. Poplar lined road to Srinagar (Miss M. B. Douie) 128
44. Map showing railways 129
45. Map--Older Canals 134
46. Map--Canals 137
47. Map of Canals of Peshawar district 141
48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka (Sir Aurel Stein) 143
49. A drove of goats--Lahore (E. B. Francis) 144
50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazara (Watson's
_Gazetteer of Hazara_) 146
51. Preparing rice field in the Hills (J. Coldstream) 147
52. Carved doorway (Sir Aurel Stein) 151
53. Shoemaker's craft (Baden Powell _Panjab Manufactures_) 153
54. Carved windows (Sir Aurel Stein) 155
55. Papier mache work of Kashmir (Baden Powell
_Panjab Manufactures_) 156
56. The Potter 157
57. Coin--obverse and reverse of Menander 163
58. Martand Temple (Miss Griffiths) 166
59. Baba Nanak and the Musician Mardana 174
60. Guru Govind Singh 176
61. Maharaja Ranjit Singh 182
62. Maharaja Kharak Singh 185
63. Nao Nihal Singh 185
64. Maharaja Sher Singh 185
65. Zamzama Gun (E. B. Francis) 187
66. Sir John Lawrence (from picture in National Portrait
Gallery) 189
67. John Nicholson's Monument at Delhi (Lady Douie) 190
68. Sir Robert Montgomery 191
69. Panjab Camels at Lahore (E. B. Francis) 193
70. Sir Charles Aitchison (Bourne and Shepherd) 194
71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson (Albert Jenkins) 198
72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer (R. Ramlal Bhairulal and Son) 199
73. Group of Chamba Temples (H.H. the Raja of Chamba) 201
74. Payer Temple--Kashmir (Sir Aurel Stein) 202
75. Reliquary (Government of India) 203
76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islam Mosque 204
77. Kutb Minar (Miss M. B. Douie) 205
78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Shah (Miss M. B. Douie) 206
79. Jama Masjid, Delhi 207
80. Tomb of Humayun (Miss M. B. Douie) 207
81. Badshahi Mosque, Lahore (E. B. Francis) 208
82. Coins 210
83. Skeleton District Map of Panjab 223
84. Delhi Enclave 225
85. Hissar district with portions of the Phulkian States
etc. 226
86. Rohtak district 228
87. Gurgaon district 230
88. Karnal district 231
89. Ambala district with Kalsia 233
90. Kangra district 235
91. Bias at Manali (J. Coldstream) 237
92. Religious Fair in Kulu (J. Coldstream) 238
93. Kulu Women (J. Coldstream) 239
94. Hoshyarpur district 240
95. Jalandhar district and Kapurthala 242
96. Ludhiana district and adjoining Native States 243
97. Ferozepore district and Faridkot 244
98. Gurdaspur district 246
99. Sialkot district 247
100. Gujranwala district 248
101. Amritsar district 250
102. Lahore district 251
103. Gujrat district 252
104. Jhelam district 254
105. Rawalpindi district 255
106. Shop in Murree Bazar (Lady Douie) 256
107. Attock district 257
108. Mianwali district 259
109. Shahpur district 261
110, Montgomery district 263
111. Lyallpur district 264
112. Jhang district 265
113. Multan district 266
114. Muzaffargarh district 268
115. Dera Ghazi Khan district 269
116. Maharaja of Patiala (C. Vandyk) 272
117. Maharaja of Jind 277
118. Maharaja Sir Hira Singh of Nabha (Bourne and
Shepherd) 278
119. Maharaja of Kapurthala 279
120. Raja of Faridkot (Julian Rust) 280
121. Nawab of Bahawalpur 281
122. Native States of Chamba, Mandi, Suket, Bilaspur 284
123. Raja Surindar Bikram Parkash of Sirmur 285
124. Raja of Chamba (F. Bremner) 287
125. Bashahr (Sketch Map by H. W. Emerson) 289
126. Sir Harold Deane (F. Bremner) 292
127. North-west Frontier Province 293
128. Dera Ismail Khan district 294
129. Bannu district 295
130. Kohat district 297
131. Peshawar district 298
132. Hazara district 300
133. Sir George Roos Keppel (Maull and Fox) 303
134. Tribal Territory north of Peshawar 304
135. Tribal Territory to west of N.W.F. Province 308
136. Khaibar Rifles 310
137. North Waziristan Militia and Border Post 313
138. Maharaja of Kashmir 315
139. Jammu and Kashmir 316
140. Takht i Suliman in Winter (Sir Aurel Stein) 318
141. Ladakh Hills (Mrs Wynyard Brown) 320
142. Zojila Pass (Mrs Wynyard Brown) 322
143. Delhi Mutiny Monument 327
144. Kashmir Gate, Delhi 328
145. Map of Delhi City 329
146. Darbar Medal 334
147. Street in Lahore (E. B. Francis) 336
148. Shahdara 338
149. Trans-border traders in Peshawar 343
150. Mosque of Shah Hamadan (F. Bremner) 345
Map of territories of Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir _at end of volume_
Map of Panjab _at end of volume_
CHAPTER I
AREAS AND BOUNDARIES
~Introductory.~--Of the provinces of India the Panjab must always have a
peculiar interest for Englishmen. Invasions by land from the west have
perforce been launched across its great plains. The English were the
first invaders who, possessing sea power, were able to outflank the
mountain ranges which guard the north and west of India. Hence the
Panjab was the last, and not the first, of their Indian conquests, and
the courage and efficiency of the Sikh soldiery, even after the guiding
hand of the old Maharaja Ranjit Singh was withdrawn, made it also one of
the hardest. The success of the early administration of the province,
which a few years after annexation made it possible to use its resources
in fighting men to help in the task of putting down the mutiny, has
always been a matter of just pride, while the less familiar story of the
conquests of peace in the first sixty years of British rule may well
arouse similar feelings.
[Illustration: Fig. 1. Arms of Panjab.]
~Scope of work.~--A geography of the Panjab will fitly embrace an account
also of the North-West Frontier Province, which in 1901 was severed
from it and formed into a separate administration, of the small area
recently placed directly under the government of India on the transfer
of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, and of the native states in
political dependence on the Panjab Government. It will also be
convenient to include Kashmir and the tribal territory beyond the
frontier of British India which is politically controlled from Peshawar.
The whole tract covers ten degrees of latitude and eleven of longitude.
The furthest point of the Kashmir frontier is in 37 deg. 2' N., which is
much the same as the latitude of Syracuse. In the south-east the Panjab
ends at 27 deg. 4' N., corresponding roughly to the position of the
southernmost of the Canary Islands. Lines drawn west from Peshawar and
Lahore would pass to the north of Beirut and Jerusalem respectively.
Multan and Cairo are in the same latitude, and so are Delhi and
Teneriffe. Kashmir stretches eastwards to longitude 80 deg. 3' and the
westernmost part of Waziristan is in 69 deg. 2' E.
~Distribution of Area.~--The area dealt with is roughly 253,000 square
miles. This is but two-thirteenths of the area of the Indian Empire, and
yet it is less by only 10,000 square miles than that of Austria-Hungary
including Bosnia and Herzegovina. The area consists of:
sq. miles
(1) The Panjab 97,000
(2) Native States dependent on Panjab Government 36,500
(3) Kashmir 81,000
(4) North West Frontier Province 13,000
(5) Tribal territory under the political control of the Chief
Commissioner of North West Frontier Province, roughly 25,500
Approximately 136,000 square miles may be classed as highlands and
117,000 as plains, and these may be distributed as follows over the
above divisions:
Highlands Plains
sq. miles sq. miles
(1) Panjab, British 11,000 86,000
(2) Panjab, Native States 12,000 24,500
(3) Kashmir 81,000 --
(4) North West Frontier Province 6,500 6,500
(5) Tribal Territory 25,500 --
On the north the highlands include the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan
(Siwalik) tracts to the south and east of the Indus, and north of that
river the Muztagh-Karakoram range and the bleak salt plateau beyond that
range reaching almost up to the Kuenlun mountains. To the west of the
Indus they include those spurs of the Hindu Kush which run into Chitral
and Dir, the Buner and Swat hills, the Safed Koh, the Waziristan hills,
the Suliman range, and the low hills in the trans-Indus districts of the
North West Frontier Province.
~Boundary with China.~--There is a point to the north of Hunza in Kashmir
where three great mountain chains, the Muztagh from the south-east, the
Hindu Kush from the south-west, and the Sarikol (an offshoot of the
Kuenlun) from the north-east, meet. It is also the meeting-place of the
Indian, Chinese, and Russian empires and of Afghanistan. Westwards from
this the boundary of Kashmir and Chinese Turkestan runs for 350 miles
(omitting curves) through a desolate upland lying well to the north of
the Muztagh-Karakoram range. Finally in the north-east corner of Kashmir
the frontier impinges on the great Central Asian axis of the Kuenlun.
From this point it turns southwards and separates Chinese Tibet from the
salt Lingzi Thang plains and the Indus valley in Kashmir, and the
eastern part of the native state of Bashahr, which physically form a
portion of Tibet.
~Boundary with United Provinces.~--The south-east corner of Bashahr is a
little to the north of the great Kedarnath peak in the Central Himalaya
and of the source of the Jamna. Here the frontier strikes to the west
dividing Bashahr from Teri Garhwal, a native state under the control of
the government of the United Provinces. Turning again to the south it
runs to the junction of the Tons and Jamna, separating Teri Garhwal from
Sirmur and some of the smaller Simla Hill States. Henceforth the Jamna
is with small exceptions the boundary between the Panjab and the United
Provinces.
~Boundary with Afghanistan.~--We must now return to our starting-point at
the eastern extremity of the Hindu Kush, and trace the boundary with
Afghanistan. The frontier runs west and south-west along the Hindu Kush
to the Dorah pass dividing Chitral from the Afghan province of Wakhan,
and streams which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus.
At the Dorah pass it turns sharply to the south, following a great spur
which parts the valley of the Chitral river (British) from that of its
Afghan affluent, the Bashgol. Below the junction of the two streams at
Arnawai the Chitral changes its name and becomes the Kunar. Near this
point the "Durand" line begins. In 1893 an agreement was made between
the Amir Abdurrahman and Sir Mortimer Durand as representative of the
British Government determining the frontier line from Chandak in the
valley of the Kunar, twelve miles north of Asmar, to the Persian border.
Asmar is an Afghan village on the left bank of the Kunar to the south of
Arnawai. In 1894 the line was demarcated along the eastern watershed of
the Kunar valley to Nawakotal on the confines of Bajaur and the country
of the Mohmands.
Thence the frontier, which has not been demarcated, passes through the
heart of the Mohmand country to the Kabul river and beyond it to our
frontier post in the Khaibar at Landikhana.
From this point the line, still undemarcated, runs on in a
south-westerly direction to the Safed Koh, and then strikes west along
it to the Sikaram mountain near the Paiwar Kotal at the head of the
Kurram valley. From Sikaram the frontier runs south and south-east
crossing the upper waters of the Kurram, and dividing our possessions
from the Afghan province of Khost. This line was demarcated in 1894.
At the south of the Kurram valley the frontier sweeps round to the west
leaving in the British sphere the valley of the Tochi. Turning again to
the south it crosses the upper waters of the Tochi and passes round the
back of Waziristan by the Shawal valley and the plains about Wana to
Domandi on the Gomal river, where Afghanistan, Biluchistan, and the
North West Frontier Province meet. The Waziristan boundary was
demarcated in 1895.
~Political and Administrative Boundaries.~--The boundary described above
defines spheres of influence, and only in the Kurram valley does it
coincide with that of the districts for whose orderly administration we
hold ourselves responsible. All we ask of Wazirs, Afridis, or Mohmands
is to leave our people at peace; we have no concern with their quarrels
or blood feuds, so long as they abide in their mountains or only leave
them for the sake of lawful gain. Our administrative boundary, which
speaking broadly we took over from the Sikhs, usually runs at the foot
of the hills. A glance at the map will show that between Peshawar and
Kohat the territory of the independent tribes comes down almost to the
Indus. At this point the hills occupied by the Jowaki section of the
Afridi tribe push out a great tongue eastwards. Our military frontier
road runs through these hills, and we actually pay the tribesmen of the
Kohat pass for our right of way. Another tongue of tribal territory
reaches right down to the Indus, and almost severs the Peshawar and
Hazara districts. Further north the frontier of Hazara lies well to the
east of the Indus.
~Frontier with Biluchistan.~--At Domandi the frontier turns to the east,
and following the Gomal river to its junction with the Zhob at Kajuri
Kach forms the boundary of the two British administrations. Henceforth
the general direction of the line is determined by the trend of the
Suliman range. It runs south to the Vehoa pass, where the country of the
Pathans of the North West Frontier Province ends and that of the Hill
and Plain Biluches subject to the Panjab Government begins. From the
Vehoa pass to the Kaha torrent the line is drawn so as to leave Biluch
tribes with the Panjab and Pathan tribes with the Biluchistan Agency.
South of the Kaha the division is between Biluch tribes, the Marris and
Bugtis to the west being managed from Quetta, and the Gurchanis and
Mazaris, who are largely settled in the plains, being included in Dera
Ghazi Khan, the trans-Indus district of the Panjab. At the south-west
corner of the Dera Ghazi Khan district the Panjab, Sind, and Biluchistan
meet. From this point the short common boundary of the Panjab and Sind
runs east to the Indus.
~The Southern Boundary.~--East of the Indus the frontier runs south-east
for about fifty miles parting Sind from the Bahawalpur State, till a
point is reached where Sind, Rajputana, and Bahawalpur join. A little
further to the east is the southern extremity of Bahawalpur at 70 deg. 8' E.
and 27 deg. 5' N. From this point a line drawn due east would at a distance
of 370 miles pass a few miles to the north of the south end of Gurgaon
and a few miles to the south of the border of the Narnaul tract of
Patiala. Between Narnaul and the south-east corner of the Bahawalpur
State the great Rajputana desert, mainly occupied in this quarter by
Bikaner, thrusts northwards a huge wedge reaching almost up to the
Sutlej. To the west of the wedge is Bahawalpur and to the east the
British district of Hissar. The apex is less than 100 miles from Lahore,
while a line drawn due south from that city to latitude 27'5 deg. north
would exceed 270 miles in length. The Jaipur State lies to the south and
west of Narnaul, while Gurgaon has across its southern frontiers Alwar
and Bharatpur, and near the Jamna the Muttra district of the United
Provinces.
CHAPTER II
MOUNTAINS, HILLS, AND PLAINS
~The Great Northern Rampart.~--The huge mountain rampart which guards the
northern frontier of India thrusts out in the north-west a great bastion
whose outer walls are the Hindu Kush and the Muztagh-Karakoram ranges.
Behind the latter with a general trend from south-east to north-west are
the great valley of the Indus to the point near Gilgit where it turns
sharply to the south, and a succession of mountain chains and glens
making up the Himalayan tract, through which the five rivers of the
Panjab and the Jamna find their way to the plains. To meet trans-Indus
extensions of the Himalaya the Hindu Kush pushes out from its main axis
great spurs to the south, flanking the valleys which drain into the
Indus either directly or through the Kabul river.
~The Himalaya.~--Tibet, which from the point of view of physical geography
includes a large and little known area in the Kashmir State to the north
of the Karakoram range, is a lofty, desolate, wind swept plateau with a
mean elevation of about 15,000 feet. In the part of it situated to the
north of the north-west corner of Nipal lies the Manasarowar lake, in
the neighbourhood of which three great Indian rivers, the Tsanpo or
Brahmaputra, the Sutlej, and the Indus, take their rise. The Indus flows
to the north-west for 500 miles and then turns abruptly to the south to
seek its distant home in the Indian Ocean. The Tsanpo has a still
longer course of 800 miles eastwards before it too bends southwards to
flow through Assam into the Bay of Bengal. Between the points where
these two giant rivers change their direction there extends for a
distance of 1500 miles the vast congeries of mountain ranges known
collectively as the "Himalaya" or "Abode of Snow." As a matter of
convenience the name is sometimes confined to the mountains east of the
Indus, but geologically the hills of Buner and Swat to the north of
Peshawar probably belong to the same system. In Sanskrit literature the
Himalaya is also known as "Himavata," whence the classical Emodus.
[Illustration: Fig. 2. Orographical Map.]
~The Kumaon Himalaya.~--The Himalaya may be divided longitudinally into
three sections, the eastern or Sikkim, the mid or Kumaon, and the
north-western or Ladakh. With the first we are not concerned. The Kumaon
section lies mainly in the United Provinces, but it includes the sources
of the Jamna, and contains the chain in the Panjab which is at once the
southern watershed of the Sutlej and the great divide between the two
river systems of Northern India, the Gangetic draining into the Bay of
Bengal, and the Indus carrying the enormous discharge of the north-west
Himalaya, the Muztagh-Karakoram, and the Hindu Kush ranges into the
Indian Ocean. Simla stands on the south-western end of this watershed,
and below it the Himalaya drops rapidly to the Siwalik foot-hills and to
the plains. Jakko, the _deodar_-clad hill round which so much of the
life of the summer capital of India revolves, attains a height of 8000
feet. The highest peak within a radius of 25 miles of Simla is the Chor,
which is over 12,000 feet high, and does not lose its snow cap till May.
Hattu, the well-known hill above Narkanda, which is 40 miles from Simla
by road, is 1000 feet lower. But further west in Bashahr the higher
peaks range from 16,000 to 22,000 feet.
[Illustration: Fig. 3. Nanga Parvat.]
~The Inner Himalaya or Zanskar Range.~--The division of the Himalaya into
the three sections named above is convenient for descriptive purposes.
But its chief axis runs through all the sections. East of Nipal it
strikes into Tibet not very far from the source of the Tsanpo, is soon
pierced by the gorge of the Sutlej, and beyond it forms the southern
watershed of the huge Indus valley. In the west this great rampart is
known as the Zanskar range. For a short distance it is the boundary
between the Panjab and Kashmir, separating two outlying portions of the
Kangra district, Lahul and Spiti, from Ladakh. In this section the peaks
are from 19,000 to 21,000 feet high, and the Baralacha pass on the road
from the Kulu valley in Kangra to Leh, the capital of Ladakh, is at an
elevation of about 16,500 feet. In Kashmir the Zanskar or Inner Himalaya
divides the valley of the Indus from those of the Chenab and Jhelam. It
has no mountain to dispute supremacy with Everest (29,000 feet), or
Kinchinjunga in the Eastern Himalaya, but the inferiority is only
relative. The twin peaks called Nun and Kun to the east of Srinagar
exceed 23,000 feet, and in the extreme north-west the grand mountain
mass of Nanga Parvat towers above the Indus to a height of 26,182 feet.
The lowest point in the chain is the Zojila (11,300 feet) on the route
from Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir, to Leh on the Indus
The road from Srinagar to Gilgit passes over the Burzil pass at an
elevation of 13,500 feet.
The Zojila is at the top of the beautiful valley of the Sind river, a
tributary of the Jhelam. The lofty Zanskar range blocks the inward flow
of the monsoon, and once the Zojila is crossed the aspect of the country
entirely changes. The land of forest glades and green pastures is left
behind, and a region of naked and desolate grandeur begins.
"The waste of snow ... is the frontier of barren Tibet, where sandy
wastes replace verdant meadows, and where the wild ridges, jutting
up against the sky, are kept bare of vegetation, their strata
crumbling under the destructive action of frost and water, leaving
bare ribs of gaunt and often fantastic outline.... The colouring of
the mountains is remarkable throughout Ladakh and nowhere more so
than near the Fotula (a pass on the road to Leh to the south of the
Indus gorge).... As we ascend the peaks suggest organ pipes, so
vertical are the ridges, so jagged the ascending outlines. And each
pipe is painted a different colour ... pale slate green, purple,
yellow, grey, orange, and chocolate, each colour corresponding with
a layer of the slate, shale, limestone, or trap strata" (Neve's
_Picturesque Kashmir_, pp. 108 and 117).
[Illustration: Fig. 4. Burzil Pass.]
In all this desolation there are tiny oases where level soil and a
supply of river water permit of cultivation and of some tree growth.
~Water divide near Baralacha and Rotang Passes in Kulu.~--We have seen
that the Indus and its greatest tributary, the Sutlej, rise beyond the
Himalaya in the Tibetan plateau. The next great water divide is in the
neighbourhood of the Baralacha pass and the Rotang pass, 30 miles to the
south of it. The route from Simla to Leh runs at a general level of 7000
to 9000 feet along or near the Sutlej-Jamna watershed to Narkanda (8800
feet). Here it leaves the Hindustan-Tibet road and drops rapidly into
the Sutlej gorge, where the Luri bridge is only 2650 feet above sea
level. Rising steeply on the other side the Jalauri pass on the
watershed between the Sutlej and the Bias is crossed at an elevation of
10,800 feet. A more gradual descent brings the traveller to the Bias at
Larji, 3080 feet above sea level. The route then follows the course of
the Bias through the beautiful Kulu valley to the Rotang pass (13,326
feet), near which the river rises. The upper part of the valley is
flanked on the west by the short, but very lofty Bara Bangahal range,
dividing Kulu from Kangra and the source of the Bias from that of the
Ravi. Beyond the Rotang is Lahul, which is divided by a watershed from
Spiti and the torrents which drain into the Sutlej. On the western side
of this watershed are the sources of the Chandra and Bhaga, which unite
to form the river known in the plains as the Chenab.
~Mid Himalaya or Pangi Range.~--The Mid Himalayan or Pangi range, striking
west from the Rotang pass and the northern end of the Bara Bangahal
chain, passes through the heart of Chamba dividing the valley of the
Chenab (Pangi) from that of the Ravi. After entering Kashmir it crosses
the Chenab near the Kolahoi cone (17,900 feet) and the head waters of
the Jhelam. Thence it continues west over Haramukh (16,900 feet), which
casts its shadow southwards on the Wular lake, to the valley of the
Kishnganga, and probably across it to the mountains which flank the
magnificent Kagan glen in Hazara.
[Illustration: Fig. 5. Rotang Pass.]
[Illustration: Fig. 6. Mt Haramukh.]
~Outer Himalaya or Dhauladhar-Pir Panjal Range.~--The Outer Himalaya also
starts from a point near the Rotang pass, but some way to the south of
the offset of the Mid Himalayan chain. Its main axis runs parallel to
the latter, and under the name of the Dhauladhar (white ridge) forms the
boundary of the Chamba State and Kangra, behind whose headquarters, at
Dharmsala it stands up like a huge wall. It has a mean elevation of
15,000 feet, but rises as high as 16,000. It passes from Chamba into
Bhadarwah in Kashmir, and crossing the Chenab is carried on as the Pir
Panjal range through the south of that State. With an elevation of only
14,000 or 15,000 feet it is a dwarf as compared with the giants of the
Inner Himalayan and Muztagh-Karakoram chains. But it hides them from the
dwellers in the Panjab, and its snowy crest is a very striking picture
as seen in the cold weather from the plains of Rawalpindi, Jhelam, and
Gujrat. The Outer Himalaya is continued beyond the gorges of the Jhelam
and Kishnganga rivers in Kajnag and the hills of the Hazara district.
Near the eastern extremity of the Dhauladhar section of the Outer
Himalaya it sends out southwards between Kulu and Mandi a lower
offshoot. This is crossed by the Babbu (9480 feet) and Dulchi passes,
connecting Kulu with Kangra through Mandi. Geologically the Kulu-Mandi
range appears to be continued to the east of the Bias and across the
Sutlej over Hattu and the Chor to the hills near Masuri (Mussoorie), a
well-known hill station in the United Provinces. Another offshoot at the
western end of the Dhauladhar passes through the beautiful hill station
of Dalhousie, and sinks into the low hills to the east of the Ravi,
where it leaves Chamba and enters the British district of Gurdaspur.
~River Valleys and Passes in the Himalaya.~--While these principal chains
can be traced from south-east to north-west over hundreds of miles it
must be remembered that the Himalaya is a mountain mass from 150 to 200
miles broad, that the main axes are linked together by subsidiary cross
chains dividing the head waters of great rivers, and flanked by long and
lofty ridges running down at various angles to the gorges of these
streams and their tributaries. The typical Himalayan river runs in a
gorge with mountains dipping down pretty steeply to its sides. The lower
slopes are cultivated, but the land is usually stony and uneven, and as
a whole the crops are not of a high class. The open valleys of the
Jhelam in Kashmir and of the Bias in Kulu are exceptions. Passes in the
Himalaya are not defiles between high cliffs, but cross the crest of a
ridge at a point where the chain is locally depressed, and snow melts
soonest. In the Outer and Mid Himalaya the line of perpetual snow is at
about 16,000 feet, but for six months of the year the snow-line comes
down 5000 feet lower. In the Inner Himalaya and the Muztagh-Karakoram,
to which the monsoon does not penetrate, the air is so dry that less
snow falls and the line is a good deal higher.
[Illustration: Fig. 7. R. Jhelam in Kashmir--View towards Mohand Marg.]
[Illustration: Fig. 8. Near Naran in Kagan Glen, Hazara.]
~Himalayan Scenery.~--Certain things strike any observant traveller in the
Himalaya. One is the comparative absence of running or still water,
except in the height of the rainy season, away from the large rivers.
The slope is so rapid that ordinary falls of rain run off with great
rapidity. The mountain scenery is often magnificent and the forests are
beautiful, but the absence of water robs the landscape of a charm which
would make it really perfect. Where this too is present, as in the
valley of the Bias in Kulu and those of the Jhelam and its tributaries
in Kashmir and Hazara, the eye has its full fruition of content.
Another is the silence of the forests. Bird and beast are there, but
they are little in evidence. A third feature which can hardly be missed
is the contrast between the northern and the southern slopes. The former
will often be clothed with forest while the latter is a bare stony slope
covered according to season with brown or green grass interspersed with
bushes of indigo, barberry, or the hog plum (Prinsepia utilis). The
reason is that the northern side enjoys much more shade, snow lies
longer, and the supply of moisture is therefore greater. The grazier for
the same reason is less tempted to fire the hill side in order to
promote the growth of grass, a practice which is fatal to all forest
growth. The rich and varied flora of the Himalaya will be referred to
later.
~Muztagh-Karakoram Ranges.~--The Muztagh-Karakoram mountains form the
northern watershed of the Indus. The range consists of more than one
main axis. The name Karakoram is appropriated to the eastern part of the
system which originates at E. longitude 79 deg. near the Pangong lake in the
Tibetan plateau a little beyond the boundary of Kashmir. Beyond the
Karakoram pass (18,550 ft.) is a lofty bleak upland with salt lakes
dotted over its surface. Through this inhospitable region and over the
Karakoram pass and the Sasser-la (17,500 ft.) the trade route from
Yarkand to Leh runs. The road is only open for three months in the year,
and the dangers and hardships are great. In 1898 Dr Bullock Workman and
his wife marched along it across the Shyok river, up the valley of the
Nubra, and over the Sasser-la to the Karakoram pass. The scenery is an
exaggeration of that described by Dr Neve as seen on the road from the
Zoji-la to Leh. There is a powerful picture of its weird repellent
grandeur in the Workmans' book entitled _In the Ice World of Himalaya_
(pp. 28-29, 30-32). The poet who had found ideas for a new Paradiso in
the Vale of Kashmir might here get suggestions for a new Inferno.
[Illustration: Fig. 9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
Kashmir.]
The Karakoram range culminates in the north-west near the Muztagh pass
in a group of majestic peaks including K 2 or Mount Godwin Austen
(28,265 feet), Gasherbrum, and Masherbrum, which tower over and feed the
vast Boltoro glacier. The first of these giants is the second largest
mountain in the world. The Duke of the Abruzzi ascended it to the height
of 24,600 feet, and so established a climbing record. The Muztagh chain
carries on the northern bastion to the valley of the Hunza river and
the western extremity of the Hindu Kush. It has several peaks exceeding
25,000 feet. The most famous is Rakiposhi which looks down on Hunza from
a height of 25,550 feet.
~The Hindu Kush.~--The Muztagh chain from the south-east, the Sarikol from
the north-east, and the Hindu Kush from the south-west, meet at a point
to the north of Hunza. The last runs westward and south-westward for
about 200 miles to the Dorah pass (14,800 feet), separating the valleys
which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus, and Hunza
and Gilgit in Kashmir and Chitral in British India from the Afghan
province of Wakhan. The highest point in the main axis, Sad Istragh
(24,171 feet), is in this section. But the finest mountain scenery in
the Hindu Kush is in the great spurs it thrusts out southwards to flank
the glens which feed the Gilgit and Chitral rivers. Tirach Mir towers
above Chitral to a height of 25,426 feet. From Tibet to the Dorah pass
the northern frontier of India is impregnable. It is pierced by one or
two difficult trade routes strewn with the bones of pack animals, but no
large army has ever marched across it for the invasion of India. West of
the Dorah pass the general level of the Hindu Kush is a good deal lower
than that of its eastern section. The vital point in the defences of
India in this quarter lies near Charikar to the north of Kabul, where
the chain thins out, and three practicable passes debouch on the valley
of the Kabul river. It is this fact that gives the town of Kabul its
great strategic importance. The highest of the three passes, the Kaoshan
or Hindu Kush (dead Hindu), crosses the chain at an elevation of 14,340
feet. It took its own name from the fate that befel a Hindu army when
attempting to cross it, and has handed it on to the whole range. It is
the pass which the armies of Alexander and Babar used. The historical
road for the invasion of India on this side has been by Charikar and the
valley of the Kabul river to its junction with the Kunar below
Jalalabad, thence up the Kunar valley and over one of the practicable
passes which connect its eastern watershed with the Panjkora and Swat
river valleys, whence the descent on Peshawar is easy. This is the route
by which Alexander led the wing of the Grecian army which he commanded
in person, and the one followed by Babar in 1518-19. Like Alexander,
Babar fought his way through Bajaur, and crossed the Indus above Attock.
[Illustration: Fig. 10. The Khaibar Road.]
~The Khaibar.~--A British force advancing on Kabul from Peshawar has never
marched by the Kunar and Kabul valley route. It has always taken the
Khaibar road, which only follows the Kabul river for less than one-third
of the 170 miles which separate Peshawar from the Amir's capital. The
military road from Peshawar to Landikhana lies far to the south of the
river, from which it is shut off by difficult and rugged country held by
the Mohmands.
~Safed Koh.~--From Landikhana the political boundary runs south-west to
the Safed Koh (white mountain) and is continued westwards along that
range to the Paiwar Kotal or pass (8450 feet). The Safed Koh forms the
watershed of the Kabul and Kurram rivers. It is a fine pine clad chain
with a general level of 12,000 feet, and its skyline is rarely free from
snow. It culminates in the west near Paiwar Kotal in Sikaram (15,620
feet). To the west of the Peshawar and Kohat districts is a tangle of
hills and valleys formed by outlying spurs of the Safed Koh. This
difficult country is in the occupation of Afridis and Orakzais, who are
under our political control.
~The Kurram Valley.~--The line of advance into Afghanistan through the
Kurram valley is easy, and Lord Roberts used it when he marched towards
Kabul in 1898. After the war we annexed the valley, leaving however the
head waters of the Kurram in Afghan territory. The road to Kabul leaves
the river far to the south before it crosses our frontier at Paiwar
Kotal.
~Waziristan Hills.~--Between the Kurram valley and the Gomal river is a
large block of very rough mountainous country known as Waziristan from
the turbulent clan which occupies it. In the north it is drained by the
Tochi. Westwards of the Tochi valley the country rises into lofty
mountains. The upper waters of the Tochi and its affluents drain two
fine glens known as Birmal and Shawal to the west of the country of the
Mahsud Wazirs. The Tochi valley is the direct route from India to
Ghazni, and nine centuries ago, when that decayed town was the capital
of a powerful kingdom, it must often have heard the tramp of armed men.
The loftiest peaks in Waziristan, Shuidar (11,000 feet) and Pirghal
(11,600 feet), overhang Birmal. Further south, Wana, our post in
south-west Waziristan, overlooks from its plateau the Gomal valley.
~The Gomal Pass as a trade route.~--East of Kajuri Kach the Gomal flows
through tribal territory to the Gomal pass from which it debouches into
the plains of the Dera Ismail Khan district. "The Gomal route is the
oldest of all trade routes. Down it there yearly pours a succession of
_kafilas_ (caravans) led and followed up by thousands of well-armed
Pathan traders, called Powindahs, from the plains of Afghanistan to
India. The Powindahs mostly belong to the Ghilzai tribes, and are not
therefore true Afghans[1]. Leaving their women and children encamped
within British territory on our border, and their arms in the keeping of
our frontier political officials, the Powindah makes his way southwards
with his camel loads of fruit and silk, bales of camel and goat hair or
sheepskin goods, carpets and other merchandise from Kabul and Bokhara,
and conveys himself through the length and breadth of the Indian
peninsula.... He returns yearly to the cool summits of the Afghan hills
and the open grassy plains, where his countless flocks of sheep and
camels are scattered for the summer grazing" (Holdich's _India_, pp.
80-81).
~Physical features of hilly country between Peshawar and the Gomal
river.~--The physical features of the hill country between Peshawar and
the Gomal pass may best be described in the words of Sir Thomas Holdich:
"Natural landscape beauty, indeed, may here be measured to a
certain extent by altitude. The low ranges of sun-scorched,
blackened ridge and furrow formation which form the approaches to
the higher altitudes of the Afghan upland, and which are almost as
regularly laid out by the hand of nature in some parts of the
frontier as are the parallels ... of the engineer who is besieging
a fortress--these are by no means 'things of beauty,' and it is
this class of formation and this form of barren desolation that is
most familiar to the frontier officer.... Shades of delicate purple
and grey will not make up for the absence of the living green of
vegetation.... But with higher altitudes a cooler climate and
snow-fed soil is found, and as soon as vegetation grasps a
root-hold there is the beginning of fine scenery. The upper
pine-covered slopes of the Safed Koh are as picturesque as those of
the Swiss Alps; they are crowned by peaks whose wonderful altitudes
are frozen beyond the possibility of vegetation, and are usually
covered with snow wherever snow can lie. In Waziristan, hidden away
in the higher recesses of its great mountains, are many valleys of
great natural beauty, where we find the spreading poplar and the
ilex in all the robust growth of an indigenous flora.... Among the
minor valleys Birmal perhaps takes precedence by right of its
natural beauty. Here are stretches of park-like scenery where
grass-covered slopes are dotted with clumps of _deodar_ and pine
and intersected with rivulets hidden in banks of fern; soft green
glades open out to view from every turn in the folds of the hills,
and above them the silent watch towers of Pirghal and Shuidar ...
look down from their snow-clad heights across the Afghan uplands to
the hills beyond Ghazni." (Holdich's _India_, pp. 81-82.)
~The Suliman Range.~--A well-marked mountain chain runs from the Gomal to
the extreme south-west corner of the Dera Ghazi Khan district where the
borders of Biluchistan, Sind, and the Panjab meet. It culminates forty
miles south of the Gomal in the fine Kaisargarh mountain (11,295 feet),
which is a very conspicuous object from the plains of the Derajat. On
the side of Kaisargarh there is a shrine called Takht i Suliman or
Throne of Solomon, and this is the name by which Englishmen usually know
the mountain, and which has been passed on to the whole range.
Proceeding southwards the general elevation of the chain drops
steadily. But Fort Munro, the hill station of the Dera Ghazi Khan
district, 200 miles south of the Takht, still stands 6300 feet above sea
level, and it looks across at the fine peak of Ekbhai, which is more
than 1000 feet higher. In the south of the Dera Ghazi Khan district the
general level of the chain is low, arid the Giandari hill, though only
4160 feet above the sea, stands out conspicuously. Finally near where
the three jurisdictions meet the hills melt into the Kachh Gandava
plain. Sir Thomas Holdich's description of the rugged Pathan hills
applies also to the Suliman range. Kaisargarh is a fine limestone
mountain crowned by a forest of the edible _chilgoza_ pine. But the
ordinary tree growth, where found at all, is of a much humbler kind,
consisting of gnarled olives and dwarf palms.
~Passes and torrents in Suliman Hills.~--The drainage of the western
slopes of the Suliman range finding no exit on that side has had to wear
out ways for itself towards the plains which lie between the foot of the
hills and the Indus. This is the explanation of the large number of
passes, about one hundred, which lead from the plains into the Suliman
hills. The chief from north to south are the Vehoa, the Sangarh, the
Khair, the Kaha, the Chachar, and the Siri, called from the torrents
which flow through them to the plains. There is an easy route through
the Chachar to Biluchistan. But unfortunately the water of the torrent
is brackish.
~Sub Himalaya or Siwaliks.~--In its lowest ridges the Himalaya drops to a
height of about 5000 feet. But the traveller to any of the summer
resorts in the mountains passes through a zone of lower hills
interspersed sometimes with valleys or "duns." These consist of Tertiary
sandstones, clays, and boulder conglomerates, the debris in fact which
the Himalaya has dropped in the course of ages. To this group of hills
and valleys the general name of Siwaliks is given. East of the Jhelam it
includes the Nahan hills to the north of Ambala, the low hills of
Kangra, Hoshyarpur, Gurdaspur, and Jammu, and the Pabbi hills in Gujrat.
But it is to the west of the Jhelam that the system has its greatest
extension. Practically the whole of the soil of the plains of the
Attock, Rawalpindi, and Jhelam districts consists of disintegrated
Siwalik sandstone, and differs widely in appearance and agricultural
quality from the alluvium of the true Panjab plains. The low hills of
these districts belong to the same system, but the Salt Range is only in
part Siwalik. Altogether Siwalik deposits in the Panjab cover an area of
13,000 square miles. Beyond the Indus the hills of the Kohat district
and a part of the Suliman range are of Tertiary age.
~The Great Panjab Plain.~--The passage from the highlands to the plains is
as a rule abrupt, and the contrast between the two is extraordinary.
This is true without qualification of the tract between the Jamna and
the Jhelam. It is equally true of British districts west of the Jhelam
and south of the Salt Range and of lines drawn from Kalabagh on the west
bank of the Indus southwards to Paniala and thence north-west through
the Pezu pass to the Waziristan hills. In all that vast plain, if we
except the insignificant hills in the extreme south-west of the province
ending to the north in the historic ridge at Delhi, some hillocks of
gneiss near Tosham in Hissar, and the curious little isolated rocks at
Kirana, Chiniot, and Sangla near the Chenab and Jhelam, the only
eminences are petty ridges of windblown sand and the "_thehs_" or mounds
which represent the accumulated debris of ancient village sites. At the
end of the Jurassic period and later this great plain was part of a sea
bed. Far removed as the Indian ocean now is the height above sea level
of the Panjab plain east of the Jhelam is nowhere above 1000 feet. Delhi
and Lahore are both just above the 700 feet line. The hills mentioned
above are humble time-worn outliers of the very ancient Aravalli system,
to which the hills of Rajputana belong. Kirana and Sangla were already
of enormous age, when they were islands washed by the waves of the
Tertiary sea. A description of the different parts of the vast Panjab
plain, its great stretches of firm loam, and its tracts of sand and sand
hills, which the casual observer might regard as pure desert, will be
given in the paragraphs devoted to the different districts.
~The Salt Range.~--The tract west of the Jhelam, and bounded on the south
by the Salt Range cis-Indus, and trans-Indus by the lines mentioned
above, is of a more varied character. Time worn though the Salt Range
has become by the waste of ages, it still rises at Sakesar, near its
western extremity, to a height of 5000 feet. The eastern part of the
range is mostly in the Jhelam district, and there the highest point is
Chail (3700 feet). The hill of Tilla (3242 feet), which is a marked
feature of the landscape looking westwards from Jhelam cantonment, is on
a spur running north-east from the main chain. The Salt Range is poorly
wooded, the dwarf acacia or _phulahi_ (Acacia modesta), the olive, and
the _sanattha_ shrub (Dodonea viscosa) are the commonest species. But
these jagged and arid hills include some not infertile valleys, every
inch of which is put under crop by the crowded population. To geologists
the range is of special interest, including as it does at one end of the
scale Cambrian beds of enormous antiquity and at the other rocks of
Tertiary age. Embedded in the Cambrian strata there are great deposits
of rock salt at Kheora, where the Mayo mine is situated. At Kalabagh
the Salt Range reappears on the far side of the Indus. Here the salt
comes to the surface, and its jagged pinnacles present a remarkable
appearance.
~Country north of the Salt Range.~--The country to the north of the Salt
Range included in the districts of Jhelam, Rawalpindi, and Attock is
often ravine-bitten and seamed with the white sandy beds of torrents.
Generally speaking it is an arid precarious tract, but there are fertile
stretches which will be mentioned in the descriptions of the districts.
The general height of the plains north of the Salt Range is from 1000
feet to 2000 feet above sea level. The rise between Lahore and
Rawalpindi is just over a thousand feet. Low hills usually form a
feature of the landscape, pleasing at a distance or when softened by the
evening light, but bare and jagged on a nearer view. The chief hills are
the Margalla range between Hazara and Rawalpindi, the Kalachitta and the
Khairimurat hills running east and west through Attock and the very dry
and broken Narrara hills on the right bank of the Indus in the same
district. Between the Margalla and Kalachitta hills is the Margalla pass
on the main road from Rawalpindi to the passage of the Indus at Attock,
and therefore a position of considerable strategical importance. The
Kalachitta (black and white) chain is so called because the north side
is formed of nummulitic limestone and the south mainly of a dark purple
sandstone. The best tree-growth is therefore on the north side.
~Peshawar, Kohat, and Bannu.~--Across the Indus the Peshawar and Bannu
districts are basins ringed with hills and drained respectively by the
Kabul and Kurram rivers with their affluents. Between these two basins
lies the maze of bare broken hills and valleys which make up the Kohat
district. The cantonment of Kohat is 1700 feet above sea level and no
hill in the district reaches 5000 feet. Near the Kohat border in the
south-west of the Peshawar district are the Khattak hills, the
culmination of which at Ghaibana Sir has a height of 5136 feet, and the
military sanitarium of Cherat in the same chain is 600 feet lower. On
the east the Maidani hills part Bannu from Isakhel, the trans-Indus
_tahsil_ of Mianwali, and on the south the Marwat hills divide it from
Dera Ismail Khan. Both are humble ranges. The highest point in the
Marwat hills is Shekhbudin, a bare and dry limestone rock rising to an
elevation of over 4500 feet.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: They are held to be of Turkish origin.]
CHAPTER III
RIVERS
~The Panjab Rivers.~--"Panjab" is a Persian compound word, meaning "five
waters," and strictly speaking the word denotes the country between the
valley of the Jhelam and that of the Sutlej. The intermediate rivers
from west to east are the Chenab, the Ravi, and the Bias. Their combined
waters at last flow into the Panjnad or "five rivers" at the south-west
corner of the Multan district, and the volume of water which 44 miles
lower down the Panjnad carries into the Indus is equal to the discharge
of the latter. The first Aryan settlers knew this part of India as the
land of the seven rivers (_sapla sindhavas_), adding to the five
mentioned above the Indus and the Sarasvati. The old Vedic name is more
appropriate than Panjab if we substitute the Jamna for the Sarasvati or
Sarusti, which is now a petty stream.
[Illustration: Fig. 11. Panjab Rivers.]
~River Valleys.~--The cold weather traveller who is carried from Delhi to
Rawalpindi over the great railway bridges at points chosen because there
the waters of the rivers are confined by nature, or can be confined by
art, within moderate limits, has little idea of what one of these rivers
is like in flood time. He sees that, even at such favoured spots,
between the low banks there is a stretch of sand far exceeding in width
the main channel, where a considerable volume of water is running, and
the minor depressions, in which a sluggish and shallow flow may still
be found. If, leaving the railway, he crosses a river by some bridge of
boats or local ferry, he will find still wider expanses of sand
sometimes bare and dry and white, at others moist and dark and covered
with dwarf tamarisk. He may notice that, before he reaches the sand and
the tamarisk scrub, he leaves by a gentle or abrupt descent the dry
uplands, and passes into a lower, greener, and perhaps to his
inexperienced eye more fertile seeming tract. This is the valley, often
miles broad, through which the stream has moved in ever-shifting
channels in the course of centuries. He finds it hard to realize that,
when the summer heats melt the Himalayan snows, and the monsoon
currents, striking against the northern mountain walls, are precipitated
in torrents of rain, the rush of water to the plains swells the river
20, 30, 40, or even 50 fold. The sandy bed then becomes full from bank
to bank, and the silt laden waters spill over into the cultivated
lowlands beyond. Accustomed to the stable streams of his own land, he
cannot conceive the risks the riverside farmer in the Panjab runs of
having fruitful fields smothered in a night with barren sand, or lands
and well and house sucked into the river-bed. So great and sudden are
the changes, bad and good, wrought by river action that the loss and
gain have to be measured up year by year for revenue purposes. Nor is
the visitor likely to imagine that the main channel may in a few seasons
become a quite subsidiary or wholly deserted bed. Like all streams, e.g.
the Po, which flow from the mountains into a flat terrain, the Panjab
rivers are perpetually silting up their beds, and thus, by their own
action, becoming diverted into new channels or into existing minor ones,
which are scoured out afresh. If our traveller, leaving the railway at
Rawalpindi, proceeds by tonga to the capital of Kashmir, he will find
between Kohala and Baramula another surprise awaiting him. The noble but
sluggish river of the lowlands, which he crossed at the town of Jhelam,
is here a swift and deep torrent, flowing over a boulder bed, and
swirling round waterworn rocks in a gorge hemmed in by mountains. That
is the typical state of the Himalayan rivers, though the same Jhelam
above Baramula is an exception, flowing there sluggishly through a very
flat valley into a shallow lake.
~The Indus Basin.~--The river Sindh (Sanskrit, Sindhu), more familiar to
us under its classical name of the Indus, must have filled with
astonishment every invader from the west, and it is not wonderful that
they called after it the country that lay beyond. Its basin covers an
area of 373,000 square miles. Confining attention to Asia these figures,
large though they seem, are far exceeded by those of the Yangtsze-Kiang.
The area of which a description is attempted in this book is, with the
exception of a strip along the Jamna and the part of Kashmir lying
beyond the Muztagh-Karakoram range, all included in the Indus basin. But
it does not embrace the whole of it. Part is in Tibet, part in
Afghanistan and Biluchistan, and part in Sindh, through which province
the Indus flows for 450 miles, or one-quarter of its whole course of
1800 miles. It seems likely that the Jamna valley was not always an
exception, or at least that that river once flowed westwards through
Rajputana to the Indian ocean. The five great rivers of the Panjab all
drain into the Indus, and the Ghagar with its tributary, the Sarusti,
which now, even when in flood, loses itself in the sands of Bikaner,
probably once flowed down the old Hakra bed in Bahawalpur either into
the Indus or by an independent bed now represented by an old flood
channel of the Indus in Sindh, the Hakro or Nara, which passes through
the Rann of Kachh.
~The Indus outside British India.~--To the north of the Manasarowar lake
in Tibet is Kailas, the Hindu Olympus. On the side of this mountain the
Indus is said to rise at a height of 17,000 feet. After a course of 200
miles or more it crosses the south-east boundary of the Kashmir State at
an elevation of 13,800 feet. From the Kashmir frontier to Mt Haramosh
west of Gilgit it flows steadily to the north-west for 350 miles. After
125 miles Leh, the capital of Ladakh, is reached at a height of 10,500
feet, and here the river is crossed by the trade route to Yarkand. A
little below Leh the Indus receives the Zanskar, which drains the
south-east of Kashmir. After another 150 miles it flows through the
basin, in which Skardo, the principal town in Baltistan, is situated.
Above Skardo a large tributary, the Shyok, flows in from the east at an
elevation of 8000 feet. The Shyok and its affluent, the Nubra, rise in
the giant glaciers to the south-west of the Karakoram pass. After the
Skardo basin is left behind the descent is rapid. The river rushes down
a tremendous gorge, where it appears to break through the western
Himalaya, skirts Haramosh, and at a point twenty-five miles east of
Gilgit bends abruptly to the south. Shortly after it is joined from the
west by the Gilgit river, and here the bed is about 4000 feet above sea
level. Continuing to flow south for another twenty miles it resumes its
westernly course to the north of Nanga Parvat and persists in it for 100
miles. Our political post of Chilas lies in this section on the south
bank. Fifty or sixty miles west of Chilas the Indus turns finally to the
south. From Jalkot, where the Kashmir frontier is left, to Palosi below
the Mahaban mountain it flows for a hundred miles through territory over
which we only exercise political control. Near Palosi, 812 miles from
the source, the river enters British India. In Kashmir the Indus and the
Shyok in some places flow placidly over alluvial flats, and at others
with a rapid and broken current through narrow gorges. At Skardo their
united stream is said, even in winter, to be 500 feet wide and nine or
ten feet deep. If one of the deep gorges, as sometimes happens, is
choked by a landslip, the flood that follows when the barrier finally
bursts may spread devastation hundreds of miles away. To the north of
the fertile Chach plain in Attock there is a wide stretch of land along
the Indus, which still shows in its stony impoverished soil the effects
of the great flood of 1841.
[Illustration: Fig. 12. The Indus at Attock.]
[Illustration: Fig. 13. Indus at Kafirkot, D.I. Khan dt.]
~The Indus in British India.~--After reaching British India the Indus soon
becomes the boundary dividing Hazara and Peshawar, two districts of the
North West Frontier Province. Lower down it parts Peshawar from the
Panjab district of Attock. In this section after a time the hills recede
on both sides, and the stream is wide and so shallow that it is fordable
in places in the cold weather. There are islands, ferry boats and rafts
can ply, and the only danger is from sudden freshets. Ohind, where
Alexander crossed, is in this section. A more famous passage is at
Attock just below the junction of the Kabul river. Here the heights
again approach the Indus on either bank. The volume of water is vastly
increased by the union of the Kabul river, which brings down the whole
drainage of the southern face of the Hindu Kush. From the north it
receives near Jalalabad the Kunar river, and near Charsadda in Peshawar
the Swat, which with its affluent the Panjkora drains Dir, Bajaur, and
Swat. In the cold weather looking northwards from the Attock fort one
sees the Kabul or Landai as a blue river quietly mingling with the
Indus, and in the angle between them a stretch of white sand. But during
floods the junction is the scene of a wild turmoil of waters. At Attock
there are a railway bridge, a bridge of boats, and a ferry. The bed of
the stream is 2000 feet over sea level. For ninety miles below Attock
the river is confined between bare and broken hills, till it finally
emerges into the plains from the gorge above Kalabagh, where the Salt
Range impinges on the left bank. Between Attock and Kalabagh the right
bank is occupied by Peshawar and Kohat and the left by Attock and
Mianwali. In this section the Indus is joined by the Haro and Soan
torrents, and spanned at Khushalgarh by a railway bridge. This is the
only other masonry bridge crossing it in the Panjab. Elsewhere the
passage has to be made by ferry boats or by boat bridges, which are
taken down in the rainy season. At Kalabagh the height above sea level
is less than 1000 feet. When it passes the western extremity of the Salt
Range the river spreads out into a wide lake-like expanse of waters. It
has now performed quite half of its long journey. Henceforth it receives
no addition from the east till the Panjnad in the south-west corner of
the Muzaffargarh district brings to it the whole tribute of the five
rivers of the Panjab. Here, though the Indian ocean is still 500 miles
distant, the channel is less than 300 feet above the sea. From the west
it receives an important tributary in the Kurram, which, with its
affluent the Tochi, rises in Afghanistan. The torrents from the Suliman
Range are mostly used up for irrigation before they reach the Indus, but
some of them mingle their waters with it in high floods. Below Kalabagh
the Indus is a typical lowland river of great size, with many sandy
islands in the bed and a wide valley subject to its inundations.
Opposite Dera Ismail Khan the valley is seventeen miles across. As a
plains river the Indus runs at first through the Mianwali district of
the Panjab, then divides Mianwali from Dera Ismail Khan, and lastly
parts Muzaffargarh and the Bahawalpur State from the Panjab frontier
district of Dera Ghazi Khan.
~The Jhelam.~--The Jhelam, the most westernly of the five rivers of the
Panjab, is called the Veth in Kashmir and locally in the Panjab plains
the Vehat. These names correspond to the Bihat of the Muhammadan
historians and the Hydaspes of the Greeks, and all go back to the
Sanskrit Vitasta. Issuing from a deep pool at Vernag to the east of
Islamabad in Kashmir it becomes navigable just below that town, and
flows north-west in a lazy stream for 102 miles through Srinagar, the
summer capital, into the Wular lake, and beyond it to Baramula. The
banks are quite low and often cultivated to the river's edge. But across
the flat valley there is on either side a splendid panorama of
mountains. From Baramula the character of the Jhelam suddenly changes,
and for the next 70 miles to Kohala, where the traveller crosses by a
fine bridge into the Panjab, it rushes down a deep gorge, whose sides
are formed by the Kajnag mountains on the right, and the Pir Panjal on
the left, bank. Between Baramula and Kohala there is a drop from 5000 to
2000 feet. At Domel, the stage before Kohala the Jhelam receives from
the north the waters of the Kishnganga, and lower down it is joined by
the Kunhar, which drains the Kagan glen in Hazara. A little above Kohala
it turns sharply to the south, continuing its character as a mountain
stream hemmed in by the hills of Rawalpindi on the right bank and of the
Punch State on the left. The hills gradually sink lower and lower, but
on the left side only disappear a little above the cantonment of Jhelam,
where there is a noble railway bridge. From Jhelam onwards the river is
of the usual plains' type. After dividing the districts of Jhelam (right
bank) and Gujrat (left), it flows through the Shahpur and Jhang
districts, falling finally into the Chenab at Trimmu, 450 miles from its
source. There is a second railway bridge at Haranpur on the Sind Sagar
line, and a bridge of boats at Khushab, in the Shahpur district. The
noblest and most-varied scenery in the north-west Himalaya is in the
catchment area of the Jhelam. The Kashmir valley and the valleys which
drain into the Jhelam from the north, the Liddar, the Lolab, the Sind,
and the Kagan glen, display a wealth of beauty unequalled elsewhere. Nor
does this river wholly lose its association with beauty in the plains.
Its very rich silt gives the lands on its banks the green charm of rich
crops and pleasant trees.
~The Chenab.~--The Chenab (more properly Chinab or river of China) is the
Asikni of the Vedas and the Akesines of the Greek historians. It is
formed by the union of the Chandra and Bhaga, both of which rise in
Lahul near the Baralacha pass. Having become the Chandrabhaga the river
flows through Pangi in Chamba and the south-east of Kashmir. Near
Kishtwar it breaks through the Pir Panjal range, and thenceforwards
receives the drainage of its southern slopes. At Akhnur it becomes
navigable and soon after it enters the Panjab district of Sialkot. A
little later it is joined from the west by the Tawi, the stream above
which stands Jammu, the winter capital of Kashmir. The Chenab parts
Sialkot and Gujranwala on the left bank from Gujrat and Shahpur on the
right. At Wazirabad, near the point where Sialkot, Gujrat, and
Gujranwala meet, it is crossed by the Alexandra railway bridge. Leaving
Shahpur and Gujranwala behind, the Chenab flows through Jhang to its
junction with the Jhelam at Trimmu. In this section there is a second
railway bridge at Chund Bharwana. The united stream runs on under the
name of Chenab to be joined on the north border of the Multan district
by the Ravi and on its southern border by the Sutlej. Below its junction
with the latter the stream is known as the Panjnad. In the plains the
Chenab cannot be called an attractive river, and its silt is far
inferior to that of the Jhelam.
[Illustration: Fig. 14. Fording the River at Lahore.]
~The Ravi.~--The Ravi was known to the writers of the Vedic hymns as the
Parushni, but is called in classical Sanskrit Iravati, whence the
Hydraotes of the Greek historians. It rises near the Rotang pass in
Kangra, and flows north-west through the southern part of Chamba. Below
the town of Chamba, it runs as a swift slaty-blue mountain stream, and
here it is spanned by a fine bridge. Passing on to the north of the hill
station of Dalhousie it reaches the Kashmir border, and turning to the
south-west flows along it to Basoli where Kashmir, Chamba, and the
British district of Gurdaspur meet. At this point it is 2000 feet above
the sea level. It now forms the boundary of Kashmir and Gurdaspur, and
finally near Madhopur, where the head-works of the Bari Doab canal are
situated, it passes into the Gurdaspur district. Shortly after it is
joined from the north by a large torrent called the Ujh, which rises in
the Jammu hills. After reaching the Sialkot border the Ravi parts that
district first from Gurdaspur and then from Amritsar, and, passing
through the west of Lahore, divides Montgomery and Lyallpur, and flowing
through the north of Multan joins the Chenab near the Jhang border. In
Multan there is a remarkable straight reach in the channel known as the
Sidhnai, which has been utilized for the site of the head-works of a
small canal. The Degh, a torrent which rises in the Jammu hills and has
a long course through the Sialkot and Gujranwala districts, joins the
Ravi when in flood in the north of the Lyallpur district. But its waters
will now be diverted into the river higher up in order to safeguard the
Upper Chenab canal. Lahore is on the left bank of the Ravi. It is a mile
from the cold weather channel, but in high floods the waters have often
come almost up to the Fort. At Lahore the North Western Railway and the
Grand Trunk Road are carried over the Ravi by masonry bridges. There is
a second railway bridge over the Sidhnai reach in Multan. Though the
Ravi, like the Jhelam, has a course of 450 miles, it has a far smaller
catchment area, and is really a somewhat insignificant stream. In the
cold weather, the canal takes such a heavy toll from it that below
Madhopur the supply of water is mainly drawn from the Ujh, and in
Montgomery one may cross the bed dryshod for months together. The valley
of the Ravi is far narrower than those of the rivers described in the
preceding paragraphs, and the floods are most uncertain, but when they
occur are of very great value.
[Illustration: Fig. 15. Bias at Manali.]
~The Bias.~--The Bias (Sanskrit, Vipasa; Greek, Hyphasis) rises near the
Rotang pass at a height of about 13,000 feet. Its head-waters are
divided from those of the Ravi by the Bara Bangahal range. It flows for
about sixty miles through the beautiful Kulu valley to Larji (3000
feet). It has at first a rapid course, but before it reaches Sultanpur
(4000 feet), the chief village in Kulu, some thirty miles from the
source, it has become, at least in the cold weather, a comparatively
peaceful stream fringed with alder thickets. Heavy floods, however,
sometimes cover fields and orchards with sand and boulders. There is a
bridge at Manali (6100 feet), a very lovely spot, another below Nagar,
and a third at Larji. Near Larji the river turns to the west down a bold
ravine and becomes for a time the boundary between Kulu and the Mandi
State. Near the town of Mandi, where it is bridged, it bends again, and
winds in a north-west and westerly direction through low hills in the
south of Kangra till it meets the Siwaliks on the Hoshyarpur border. In
this reach there is a bridge of boats at Dera Gopipur on the main road
from Jalandhar and Hoshyarpur to Dharmsala. Elsewhere in the south of
Kangra the traveller can cross without difficulty on a small bed
supported on inflated skins. Sweeping round the northern end of the
Siwaliks the Bias, having after long parting again approached within
about fifteen miles of the Ravi, turns definitely to the south, forming
henceforth the dividing line between Hoshyarpur and Kapurthala (left
bank) and Gurdaspur and Amritsar (right). Finally above the Harike ferry
at a point where Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur, and Kapurthala nearly
meet, it falls into the Sutlej. The North Western Railway crosses it by
a bridge near the Bias station and at the same place there is a bridge
of boats for the traffic on the Grand Trunk Road. The chief affluents
are the Chakki, the torrent which travellers to Dharmsala cross by a
fine bridge twelve miles from the railhead at Pathankot, and the Black
Bein in Hoshyarpur and Kapurthala. The latter is a winding drainage
channel, which starts in a swamp in the north of the Hoshyarpur
district. The Bias has a total course of 390 miles. Only for about
eighty miles or so is it a true river of the plains, and its floods do
not spread far.
~The Sutlej.~--The Sutlej is the Shatadru of Vedic hymns and the Zaradros
of Greek writers. The peasant of the Panjab plains knows it as the Nili
or Ghara. After the Indus it is the greatest of Panjab rivers, and for
its source we have to go back to the Manasarowar lakes in Tibet. From
thence it flows for 200 miles in a north-westerly direction to the
British frontier near Shipki. A little beyond the Spiti river brings it
the drainage of the large tract of that name in Kangra and of part of
Western Tibet. From Shipki it runs for forty miles in deep gorges
through Kunawar in the Bashahr State to Chini, a beautiful spot near the
Wangtu bridge, where the Hindustan-Tibet road crosses to the left bank.
A little below Chini the Baspa flows in from the southeast. The fall
between the source and Chini is from 15,000 to 7500 feet. There is
magnificent cliff scenery at Rogi in this reach. Forty miles below Chini
the capital of Bashahr, Rampur, on the south bank, is only 3300 feet
above sea level. There is a second bridge at Rampur, and from about this
point the river becomes the boundary of Bashahr and Kulu, the route to
which from Simla passes over the Luri bridge (2650 feet) below Narkanda.
Beyond Luri the Sutlej runs among low hills through several of the Simla
Hill States. It pierces the Siwaliks at the Hoshyarpur border and then
turns to the south, maintaining that trend till Rupar and the head-works
of the Sirhind canal are reached. For the next hundred miles to the Bias
junction the general direction is west. Above the Harike ferry the
Sutlej again turns, and flows steadily, though with many windings, to
the south-west till it joins the Chenab at the south corner of the
Multan district. There are railway bridges at Phillaur, Ferozepur, and
Adamwahan. In the plains the Sutlej districts are--on the right bank
Hoshyarpur, Jalandhar, Lahore, and Montgomery, and on the left Ambala,
Ludhiana and Ferozepur. Below Ferozepur the river divides Montgomery and
Multan from Bahawalpur (left bank). The Sutle; has a course of 900
miles, and a large catchment area in the hills. Notwithstanding the
heavy toll taken by the Sirhind canal, its floods spread pretty far in
Jalandhar and Ludhiana and below the Bias junction many monsoon canals
have been dug which inundate a large area in the lowlands of the
districts on either bank and of Bahawalpur. The dry bed of the Hakra,
which can be traced through Bahawalpur, Bikaner, and Sindh, formerly
carried the waters of the Sutlej to the sea.
~The Ghagar and the Sarusti.~--The Ghagar, once a tributary of the Hakra,
rises within the Sirmur State in the hills to the east of Kalka. A few
miles south of Kalka it crosses a narrow neck of the Ambala district,
and the bridge on the Ambala-Kalka railway is in this section. The rest
of its course, till it loses itself in the sands of Bikaner, is chiefly
in Patiala and the Karnal and Hissar districts. It is joined by the Umla
torrent in Karnal and lower down the Sarusti unites with it in Patiala
just beyond the Karnal border. It is hard to believe that the Sarusti of
to-day is the famous Sarasvati of the Vedas, though the little
ditch-like channel that bears the name certainly passes beside the
sacred sites of Thanesar and Pehowa. A small sandy torrent bearing the
same name rises in the low hills in the north-east of the Ambala
district, but it is doubtful if its waters, which finally disappear into
the ground, ever reach the Thanesar channel. That seems rather to
originate in the overflow of a rice swamp in the plains, and in the cold
weather the bed is usually dry. In fact, till the Sarusti receives above
Pehowa the floods of the Markanda torrent, it is a most insignificant
stream. The Markanda, when in flood, carries a large volume of water,
and below the junction the small channel of the Sarusti cannot carry the
tribute received, which spreads out into a shallow lake called the
Sainsa _jhil_. This has been utilized for the supply of the little
Sarusti canal, which is intended to do the work formerly effected in a
rude way by throwing _bands_ or embankments across the bed of the
stream, and forcing the water over the surrounding lands. The same
wasteful form of irrigation was used on a large scale on the Ghagar and
is still practised on its upper reaches. Lower down earthen _bands_ have
been superceded by a masonry weir at Otu in the Hissar district. The
northern and southern Ghagar canals, which irrigate lands in Hissar and
Bikaner, take off from this weir.
~Action of Torrents.~--The Ghagar is large enough to exhibit all the three
stages which a _cho_ or torrent of intermittent flow passes through.
Such a stream begins in the hills with a well-defined boulder-strewn
bed, which is never dry. Reaching the plains the bed of a cho becomes a
wide expanse of white sand, hardly below the level of the adjoining
country, with a thread of water passing down it in the cold weather. But
from time to time in the rainy season the channel is full from bank to
bank and the waters spill far and wide over the fields. Sudden spates
sometimes sweep away men and cattle before they can get across. If, as
in Hoshyarpur, the _chos_ flow into a rich plain from hills composed of
friable sandstone and largely denuded of tree-growth, they are in their
second stage most destructive. After long delay an Act was passed in
1900, which gives the government large powers for the protection of
trees in the Siwaliks and the reclamation of torrent beds in the plains.
The process of recovery cannot be rapid, but a measure of success has
already been attained. It must not be supposed that the action of _chos_
in this second stage is uniformly bad. Some carry silt as well as sand,
and the very light loam which the great Markanda _cho_ has spread over
the country on its banks is worth much more to the farmer than the stiff
clay it has overlaid. Many _chos_ do not pass into the third stage, when
all the sand has been dropped, and the bed shrinks into a narrow
ditch-like channel with steep clay banks. The inundations of torrents
like the Degh and the Ghagar after this stage is reached convert the
soil into a stiff impervious clay, where flood-water will lie for weeks
without being absorbed into the soil. In Karnal the wretched and
fever-stricken tract between the Ghagar and the Sarusti known as the
Naili is of this character.
~The Jamna.~--The Jamna is the Yamuna of Sanskrit writers. Ptolemy's and
Pliny's versions, Diamouna and Jomanes, do not deviate much from the
original. It rises in the Kumaon Himalaya, and, where it first meets the
frontier of the Simla Hill States, receives from the north a large
tributary called the Tons. Henceforth, speaking broadly, the Jamna is
the boundary of the Panjab and the United Provinces. On the Panjab bank
are from north to south the Sirmur State, Ambala, Karnal, Rohtak, Delhi,
and Gurgaon. The river leaves the Panjab where Gurgaon and the district
of Mathra, which belongs to the United Provinces, meet, and finally
falls into the Ganges at Allahabad. North of Mathra Delhi is the only
important town on its banks. The Jamna is crossed by railway bridges
between Delhi and Meerut and between Ambala and Saharanpur.
~Changes in Rivers.~--Allusion has already been made to the changes which
the courses of Panjab rivers are subject to in the plains. The Indus
below Kalabagh once ran through the heart of what is now the Thal
desert. We know that in 1245 A.D. Multan was in the Sind Sagar Doab
between the Indus and the united streams of the Jhelam, Chenab, and
Ravi. The Bias had then no connection with the Sutlej, but ran in a bed
of its own easily to be traced to-day in the Montgomery and Multan
districts, and joined the Indus between Multan and Uch. The Sutlej was
still flowing in the Hakra bed. Indeed its junction with the Bias near
Harike, which probably led to a complete change in the course of the
Bias, seems only to have taken place within the last 150 years[2].
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 2: Raverty's "The Mehran of Sind and its Tributaries," in
_Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1897.]
CHAPTER IV
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
~Extent of Geological Record.~--Although the main part of the Panjab plain
is covered by a mantle of comparatively recent alluvium, the provinces
described in this book display a more complete record of Indian
geological history than any other similar area in the country. The
variety is so great that no systematic or sufficient description could
be attempted in a short chapter, and it is not possible, therefore, to
do more in these few pages than give brief sketches of the patches of
unusual interest.
~Aravalli System.~--In the southern and south-eastern districts of the
Panjab there are exposures of highly folded and metamorphosed rocks
which belong to the most ancient formations in India. These occupy the
northern end of the Aravalli hills, which form but a relic of what must
have been at one time a great mountain range, stretching roughly
south-south-west through Rajputana into the Bombay Presidency. The
northern ribs of the Aravalli series disappear beneath alluvial cover in
the Delhi district, but the rocks still underlie the plains to the west
and north-west, their presence being revealed by the small promontories
that peep through the alluvium near the Chenab river, standing up as
small hills near Chiniot in the Shahpur, Jhang, and Lyallpur districts.
The Salt Range in the Jhelam and Shahpur districts, with a western
continuation in the Mianwali district to and beyond the Indus, is the
most interesting part of the Panjab to the geologist. It contains
notable records of three distinct eras in geological history. In
association with the well-known beds of rock-salt, which are being
extensively mined at Kheora, occur the most ancient fossiliferous
formations known in India, corresponding in age with the middle and
lower part of the Cambrian system of Europe. These very ancient strata
immediately overlie the red marls and associated rock-salt beds, and it
is possible that they have been thrust over bodily to occupy this
position, as we have no parallel elsewhere for the occurrence of great
masses of salt in formation older than the Cambrian.
The second fragment of geological history preserved in the Salt Range is
very much younger, beginning with rocks which were formed in the later
part of the Carboniferous period. The most remarkable feature in this
fragment is a boulder-bed, resting unconformably on the Cambrian strata
and including boulders of various shapes and sizes, which are often
faceted and striated in a way indicative of glacial action. Several of
the boulders belong to rocks of a peculiar and unmistakable character,
such as are found _in situ_ on the western flanks of the Aravalli Range,
some 750 miles to the south. The glacial conditions which gave rise to
these boulder-beds were presumably contemporaneous with those that
produced the somewhat similar formation lying at the base of the great
coal-bearing system in the Indian peninsula. The glacial boulder-bed
thus offers indirect evidence as to the age of the Indian coal-measures,
for immediately above this bed in the Salt Range there occur sandstones
containing fossils which have affinities with the Upper Carboniferous
formations of Australia, and on these sandstones again there lie
alternations of shales and limestones containing an abundance of fossils
that are characteristic of the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of Russia.
These are succeeded by an apparently conformable succession of beds of
still younger age, culminating in a series of shales, sandstones, and
limestones of unmistakably Triassic age.
There is then an interruption in the record, and the next younger series
preserved occurs in the western part of the Salt Range as well as in the
hills beyond the Indus. This formation is of Upper Jurassic age,
corresponding to the well-known beds of marine origin preserved in
Cutch. Then follows again a gap in the record, and the next most
interesting series of formations found in the Salt Range become of great
importance from the economic as well as from the purely scientific point
of view; these are the formations of Tertiary age.
The oldest of the Tertiary strata include a prominent limestone
containing Nummulitic fossils, which are characteristic of these Lower
Tertiary beds throughout the world. Here, as in many parts of
North-Western India, the Nummulitic limestones are associated with coal
which has been largely worked. The country between the Salt Range
plateau and the hilly region away to the north is covered by a great
stretch of comparatively young Tertiary formations, which were laid down
in fresh water after the sea had been driven back finally from this
region. The incoming of fresh-water conditions was inaugurated by the
formation of beds which are regarded as equivalent in age to those known
as the Upper Nari in Sind and Eastern Baluchistan, but the still later
deposits, belonging to the well-known Siwalik series, are famous on
account of the great variety and large size of many of the vertebrate
fossil remains which they have yielded. In these beds to the north of
the Salt Range there have been found remains of Dinotherium, forms
related to the ancestors of the giraffe and various other mammals, some
of them, like the Sivatherium, Mastodon, and Stegodon, being animals of
great size. On the northern side of the Salt Range three fairly
well-defined divisions of the Siwalik series have been recognised, each
being conspicuously fossiliferous--a feature that is comparatively rare
in the Siwalik hills further to the south-east, where these rocks were
first studied. The Siwalik series of the Salt Range are thus so well
developed that this area might be conveniently regarded as the type
succession for the purpose of correlating isolated fragmentary
occurrences of the same general series in northern and western India. To
give an idea as to the age of these rocks, it will be sufficient to
mention that the middle division of the series corresponds roughly to
the well-known deposits of Pikermi and Samos.
~Kashmir~ deserves special mention, as it is a veritable paradise for the
geologist. Of the variety of problems that it presents one might mention
the petrological questions connected with the intrusion of the great
masses of granite, and their relation to the slates and associated
metamorphic rocks. Of fossiliferous systems there is a fine display of
material ranging in age from Silurian to Upper Trias, and additional
interest is added by the long-continued volcanic eruptions of the
"Panjal trap." Students of recent phenomena have at their disposal
interesting problems in physiography, including a grand display of
glaciers, and the extensive deposits of so-called _karewas_, which
appear to have been formed in drowned valleys, where the normal
fluviatile conditions are modified by those characteristic of lakes. The
occurrence of sapphires in Zanskar gives the State also an interest to
the mineralogist and connoisseur of gem-stones.
Of this kaleidoscopic assemblage of questions the ones of most immediate
interest are connected with the Silurian-Trias succession in the Kashmir
valley, for here we have a connecting-link between the marine formations
of the Salt Range area and those which are preserved in greater
perfection in Spiti and other parts of the Tibetan highlands, stretching
away to the south-east at the back of the great range of crystalline
snow-covered peaks.
In this interesting part of Kashmir the most important feature to Indian
geologists is the occurrence of plant remains belonging to genera
identical with those that occur in the lower part of the great
coal-bearing formation of Peninsular India, known as the Gondwana
system. Until these discoveries were made in Kashmir about ten years ago
the age of the base of the Gondwanas was estimated only on indirect
evidence, partly due to the assumption that glacial conditions in the
Salt Range and those at the base of the Gondwanas were contemporaneous,
and partly due to analogy with the coal measures of Australia and South
Africa. In Kashmir the characteristic plant remains of the Lower
Gondwanas are found associated with marine fossils in great abundance,
and these permit of a correlation of the strata with the upper part of
the Carboniferous system of the European standard stratigraphical scale.
Kashmir seems to have been near the estuary of one of the great rivers
that formerly flowed over the ancient continent of _Gondwanaland_ (when
India and South Africa formed parts of one continental mass) into the
great Eurasian Ocean known as _Tethys_. As the deposits formed in this
great ocean give us the principal part of our data for forming a
standard stratigraphical scale, the plants which were carried out to sea
become witnesses of the kind of flora that flourished during the main
Indian coal period; they thus enable us with great precision to fix the
position of the fresh-water Gondwanas in comparison with the marine
succession.
~Spiti.~--With a brief reference to one more interesting patch among the
geological records of this remarkable region, space will force us to
pass on to consideration of minerals of economic value. The line of
snow-covered peaks, composed mainly of crystalline rocks and forming a
core to the Himalaya in a way analogous to the granitic core of the
Alps, occupies what was once apparently the northern shore of
Gondwanaland, and to the north of it there stretched the great ocean of
Tethys, covering the central parts of Asia and Europe, one of its
shrunken relics being the present Mediterranean Sea. The bed of this
ocean throughout many geological ages underwent gradual depression and
received the sediments brought down by the rivers from the continent
which stretched away to the south. The sedimentary deposits thus formed
near the shore-line or further out in deep water attained a thickness of
well over 20,000 feet, and have been studied in the _tahsil_ of Spiti,
on the northern border of Kumaon, and again on the eastern Tibetan
plateau to the north of Darjeeling. A reference to the formations
preserved in Spiti may be regarded as typical of the geological history
and the conditions under which these formations were produced.
~Succession of Fossiliferous Beds.~--In age the fossiliferous beds range
from Cambrian right through to the Tertiary epoch; between these
extremes no single period was passed without leaving its records in some
part of the great east-to-west Tibetan basin. At the base of the whole
succession there lies a series of schists which have been largely
metamorphosed, and on these rest the oldest of the fossiliferous series,
which, on account of their occurring in the region of snow, has been
named the _Haimanta system_. The upper part of the Haimanta system has
been found to contain the characteristic trilobites of the Cambrian
period of Europe. Over this system lie beds which have yielded in
succession Ordovician and Silurian fossils, forming altogether a compact
division which has been distinguished locally as the _Muth system_. Then
follows the so-called _Kanawar system_, which introduces Devonian
conditions, followed by fossils characteristic of the well-known
mountain limestone of Europe.
Then occurs a break in the succession which varies in magnitude in
different localities, but appears to correspond to great changes in the
physical geography which widely affect the Indian region. This break
corresponds roughly to the upper part of the Carboniferous system of
Europe, and has been suggested as a datum line for distinguishing in
India an older group of fossiliferous systems below (formed in an area
that has been distinguished by the name _Dravidian_), from the younger
group above, which has been distinguished by the name _Aryan_.
During the periods that followed this interruption the bed of the great
Eurasian Ocean seems to have subsided persistently though
intermittently. As the various sediments accumulated the exact position
of the shore-line must have changed to some extent to give rise to the
conditions favourable for the formation at one time of limestone, at
another of shale and at other times of sandy deposits. The whole column
of beds, however, seems to have gone on accumulating without any folding
movements, and they are consequently now found lying apparently in
perfect conformity stage upon stage, from those that are Permian in age
at the base, right through the Mesozoic group, till the time when
Tertiary conditions were inaugurated and the earth movements began which
ultimately drove back the ocean and raised the bed, with its accumulated
load of sediments, into the great folds that now form the Himalayan
Range. This great mass of Aryan strata includes an enormous number of
fossil remains, giving probably a more complete record of the gradual
changes that came over the marine fauna of Tethys than any other area of
the kind known. One must pass over the great number of interesting
features still left unmentioned, including the grand architecture of the
Sub-Himalaya and the diversity of formations in different parts of the
Frontier Province; for the rest of the available space must be devoted
to a brief reference to the minerals of value.
~Rock-salt~, which occurs in abundance, is possibly the most important
mineral in this area. The deposits most largely worked are those which
occur in the well-known Salt Range, covering parts of the districts of
Jhelam, Shahpur, and Mianwali. Near the village of Kheora the main seam,
which is being worked in the Mayo mines, has an aggregate thickness of
550 feet, of which five seams, with a total thickness of 275 feet,
consist of salt pure enough to be placed on the table with no more
preparation than mere pulverising. The associated beds are impregnated
with earth, and in places there occur thin layers of potash and
magnesian salts. In this area salt quarrying was practised for an
unknown period before the time of Akbar, and was continued in a
primitive fashion until it came under the control of the British
Government with the occupation of the Panjab in 1849. In 1872 systematic
mining operations were planned, and the general line of work has been
continued ever since, with an annual output of roughly 100,000 tons.
Open quarries for salt are developed a short distance to the
east-north-east of Kalabagh on the Indus, and similar open work is
practised near Kohat in the North West Frontier Province, where the
quantity of salt may be regarded as practically inexhaustible. At
Bahadur Khel the salt lies at the base of the Tertiary series, and can
be traced for a distance of about eight miles with an exposed thickness
of over 1000 feet, sometimes standing up as hills of solid salt above
the general level of the plains. In this area the production is
naturally limited by want of transport and the small local demand, the
total output from the quarries being about 16,000 tons per annum. A
small quantity of salt (generally about 4000 tons a year), is raised
also from open quarries in the Mandi State, where the rock-salt beds,
distinctly impure and earthy, lie near the junction between Tertiary
formations and the older unfossiliferous groups.
~Coal~ occurs at numerous places in association with the Nummulitic
limestones of Lower Tertiary age, in the Panjab, in the North West
Frontier Province, and in the Jammu division of Kashmir. The largest
output has been obtained from the Salt Range, where mines have been
opened up on behalf of the North Western Railway. The mines at Dandot in
the Jhelam district have considerable fluctuations in output, which,
however, for many years ranged near 50,000 tons. These mines, having
been worked at a financial loss, were finally abandoned by the Railway
Company in 1911, but a certain amount of work is still being continued
by local contractors. At Bhaganwala, 19 miles further east, in the
adjoining district of Shahpur, coal was also worked for many years for
the North Western State Railway, but the maximum output in any one year
never exceeded 14,000 tons, and in 1900, owing to the poor quality of
material obtained, the collieries were closed down. Recently, small
outcrop workings have been developed in the same formation further west
on the southern scarp of the Salt Range at Tejuwala in the Shahpur
district.
~Gold~ to a small amount is washed from the gravel of the Indus and some
other rivers by native workers, and large concessions have been granted
for systematic dredging, but these enterprises have not yet reached the
commercially paying stage.
~Other Metals.~--Prospecting has been carried on at irregular intervals in
Kulu and along the corresponding belt of schistose rocks further west in
Kashmir and Chitral. The copper ores occur as sulphides along certain
bands in the chloritic and micaceous schists, similar in composition and
probably in age to those worked further east in Kumaon, in Nipal, and in
Sikkim. In Lahul near the Shigri glacier there is a lode containing
~antimony~ sulphide with ores of ~zinc~ and ~lead~, which would almost
certainly be opened up and developed but for the difficulty of access
and cost of transport to the only valuable markets.
~Petroleum~ springs occur among the Tertiary formations of the Panjab and
Biluchistan, and a few thousand gallons of oil are raised annually.
Prospecting operations have been carried on vigorously during the past
two or three years, but no large supplies have so far been proved. The
principal oil-supplies of Burma and Assam have been obtained from rocks
of Miocene age, like those of Persia and the Caspian region, but the
most promising "shows" in North West India have been in the older
Nummulitic formations, and the oil is thus regarded by some experts as
the residue of the material which has migrated from the Miocene beds
that probably at one time covered the Nummulitic formations, but have
since been removed by the erosive action of the atmosphere.
~Alum~ is manufactured from the pyritous shales of the Mianwali district,
the annual output being generally about 200 to 300 tons. Similar shales
containing pyrites are known to occur in other parts of this area, and
possibly the industry might be considerably extended, as the annual
requirements of India, judged by the import returns, exceed ten times
the native production of alum.
~Borax~ is produced in Ladakh and larger quantities are imported across
the frontier from Tibet. In the early summer one frequently meets herds
of sheep being driven southwards across the Himalayan passes, each sheep
carrying a couple of small saddle-bags laden with borax or salt, which
is bartered in the Panjab bazars for Indian and foreign stores for the
winter requirements of the snow-blocked valleys beyond the frontier.
~Sapphires.~--The sapphires of Zanskar have been worked at intervals since
the discovery of the deposit in 1881, and some of the finest stones in
the gem market have been obtained from this locality, where work is,
however, difficult on account of the great altitude and the difficulty
of access from the plains.
~Limestone.~--Large deposits of Nummulitic limestone are found in the
older Tertiary formations of North-West India. It yields a pure lime and
is used in large quantities for building purposes. The constant
association of these limestones with shale beds, and their frequent
association with coal, naturally suggest their employment for the
manufacture of cement; and special concessions have recently been given
by the Panjab Government with a view of encouraging the development of
the industry. The nodular impure limestone, known generally by the name
of _kankar_, contains sufficient clay to give it hydraulic characters
when burnt, and much cement is thus manufactured. The varying
composition of _kankar_ naturally results in a product of irregular
character, and consequently cement so made can replace Portland cement
only for certain purposes.
~Slate~ is quarried in various places for purely local use. In the Kangra
valley material of very high quality is obtained and consequently
secures a wide distribution, limited, however, by competition with
cheaply made tiles.
~Gypsum~ occurs in large quantities in association with the rock-salt of
the Salt Range, but the local demand is small. There are also beds of
potash and magnesian salts in the same area, but their value and
quantity have not been thoroughly proved.
[Illustration: January-February.]
[Illustration: March to May.]
_Normal Rainfall._
I. N.W.F. Province. II. Kashmir.
III. Panjab E. and N. IV. Panjab S.W.
Fig. 16. Rainfall of different Seasons.
[Illustration: June to September.]
[Illustration: October to December.]
_Normal Rainfall._
I. N.W.F. Province II. Kashmir.
III. Panjab E. and N. IV. Panjab S.W.
Fig. 16 (_cont._). Rainfall of different Seasons.
CHAPTER V
CLIMATE
~Types of Climate.~--The climate of the Panjab plains is determined by
their distance from the sea and the existence of formidable mountain
barriers to the north and west. The factor of elevation makes the
climate of the Himalayan tracts very different from that of the plains.
Still more striking is the contrast between the Indian Himalayan climate
and the Central Asian Trans-Himalayan climate of Spiti, Lahul, and
Ladakh.
~Zones.~--A broad division into six zones may be recognised:
A 1. Trans-Himalayan.
B 2. Himalayan.
C. Plains 3. North Western.
4. Submontane.
5. Central and South Eastern.
6. South Western.
~Trans-Himalayan Climate.~--Spiti, Lahul, and Ladakh are outside the
meteorological influences which affect the rest of the Indian Empire.
The lofty ranges of the Himalaya interpose an almost insurmountable
barrier between them and the clouds of the monsoon. The rainfall is
extraordinarily small, and, considering the elevation of the inhabited
parts, 10,000 to 14,000 feet, the snowfall there is not heavy. The air
is intensely dry and clear, and the daily and seasonal range of
temperature is extreme. Leh, the capital of Ladakh (11,500 feet), has an
average rainfall (including snow) of about 3 inches. The mean
temperature is 43 deg. Fahr., varying from 19 deg. in January to 64 deg. in July.
But these figures give no idea of the rigours of the severe but healthy
climate. The daily range is from 25 to 30 degrees, or double what we are
accustomed to in England. Once 17 deg. below zero was recorded. In the rare
dry clear atmosphere the power of the solar rays is extraordinary.
"Rocks exposed to the sun may be too hot to lay the hand upon at the
same time that it is freezing in the shade."
[Illustration: Fig. 17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January.]
[Illustration: Fig. 18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July.]
~The Indian Zones--Meteorological factors.~--The distribution of pressure
in India, determined mainly by changes of temperature, and itself
determining the direction of the winds and the character of the weather,
is shown graphically in figures 17 and 18. The winter or north-east
monsoon does not penetrate into the Panjab, where light westernly and
northernly winds prevail during the cold season. What rain is received
is due to land storms originating beyond the western frontier. The
branch of the summer or south-west monsoon which chiefly affects the
Panjab is that which blows up the Bay of Bengal. The rain-clouds
striking the Eastern Himalaya are deflected to the west and forced up
the Gangetic plain by south-westernly winds. The lower ranges of the
Panjab Himalaya receive in this way very heavy downpours. The rain
extends into the plains, but exhausts itself and dies away pretty
rapidly to the south and west. The Bombay branch of the monsoon mostly
spends itself on the Ghats and in the Deccan. But a part of it
penetrates from time to time to the south-east Panjab, and, if it is
sucked into the Bay current, the result is widespread rain.
~Himalayan Zone.~--The impressions which English people get of the climate
of the Himalaya, or in Indian phrase "the Hills," are derived mainly
from stations like Simla and Murree perched at a height of from 6500 to
7500 feet on the outer ranges. The data of meteorologists are mainly
taken from the same localities. Places between 8000 and 10,000 feet in
height and further from the plains enjoy a finer climate, being both
cooler and drier in summer. But they are less accessible, and weakly
persons would find the greater rarity of the air trying.
In the first fortnight of April the plains become disagreeably warm, and
it is well to take European children to the Hills. The Panjab Government
moves to Simla in the first fortnight of May. By that time Simla is
pretty warm in the middle of the day, but the nights are pleasant. The
mean temperature of the 24 hours in May and June is 65 deg. or 66 deg., the mean
maximum and minimum being 78 deg. and 59 deg.. Thunderstorms with or without
hail are not uncommon in April, May, and June. In a normal year the
monsoon clouds drift up in the end of June, and the next three months
are "the Rains." Usually it does not rain either all day or every day;
but sometimes for weeks together Simla is smothered in a blanket of grey
mist. Normally the rain comes in bursts with longer or shorter breaks
between. About the third week of September the rains often cease quite
suddenly, the end being usually proclaimed by a thunderstorm. Next
morning one wakes to a new heaven and a new earth, a perfectly cloudless
sky, and clean, crisp, cool air. This ideal weather lasts for the next
three months. Even in December the days are made pleasant by bright
sunshine, and the range of temperature is much less than in the plains.
In the end of December or beginning of January the night thermometer
often falls lower at Ambala and Rawalpindi than at Simla and Murree.
After Christmas the weather becomes broken, and in January and February
falls of snow occur. It is a disagreeable time, and English residents
are glad to descend to the plains. In March also the weather is often
unsettled. The really heavy falls of snow occur at levels much higher
than Simla. These remarks apply _mutatis mutandis_ to Dharmsala,
Dalhousie, and Murree. Owing to its position right under a lofty
mountain wall Dharmsala is a far wetter place than Simla. Murree gets
its monsoon later, and the summer rainfall is a good deal lighter. In
winter it has more snow, being nearer the source of origin of the
storms. Himalayan valleys at an elevation of 5000 feet, such as the Vale
of Kashmir, have a pleasant climate. The mean temperature of Srinagar
(5255 feet) varies from 33 deg. in January to 75 deg. in July, when it is
unpleasantly hot, and Europeans often move to Gulmarg. Kashmir has a
heavy snowfall even in the Jhelam valley. Below 4000 feet, especially in
confined river valleys the Himalayan climate is often disagreeably hot
and stuffy.
~Climate of the Plains.~--The course of the seasons is the same in the
plains. The jaded resident finds relief when the rains cease in the end
of September. The days are still warm, but the skies are clear, the air
dry, and the nights cool. November is rainless and in every way a
pleasant month. The clouds begin to gather before Christmas, but rain
often holds off till January. Pleasant though the early months of the
cold weather are, they lay traps for the unwary. In October and November
the daily range of temperature is very large, exceeding 30 deg., and the
fall at sunset very sudden. Care is needed to avoid a chill and the
fever that follows. Clear and dry though the air is, the blue of the
skies is pale owing to a light dust haze in the upper atmosphere. For
the same reason the Himalayan snows except after rain are veiled from
dwellers in the plains at a distance of 30 miles from the foot-hills.
The air in these months before the winter rains is wonderfully still. In
the three months after Christmas the Panjab is the pathway of a series
of small storms from the west, preceded by close weather and occurring
usually at intervals of a few weeks. After a day or two of wet weather
the sky clears, and the storm is followed by a great drop in the
temperature. The traveller who shivers after a January rain-storm finds
it hard to believe that the Panjab plain is a part of the hottest region
of the Old World which stretches from the Sahara to Delhi. If he had to
spend the period from May to July there he would have small doubts on
the subject. The heat begins to be unpleasant in April, when hot
westernly winds prevail. An occasional thunderstorm with hail relieves
the strain for a little. The warmest period of the year is May and June.
But the intense dry heat is healthier and to many less trying than the
mugginess of the rainy season. The dust-storms which used to be common
have become rarer and lighter with the spread of canal irrigation in the
western Panjab. The rains ought to break at Delhi in the end of June and
at Lahore ten days or a fortnight later. There is often a long break
when the climate is particularly trying. The nights are terribly hot.
The outer air is then less stifling than that of the house, and there is
the chance of a little comparative coolness shortly before dawn. Many
therefore prefer to sleep on the roof or in the verandah. September,
when the rains slacken, is a muggy, unpleasant, and unhealthy month. But
in the latter half of it cooler nights give promise of a better time.
~Special features of Plain Zones.~--The submontane zone has the most
equable and the pleasantest climate in the plains. It has a rainfall of
from 30 to 40 inches, five-sevenths or more of which belongs to the
monsoon period (June-September). The north-western area has a longer and
colder winter and spring. In the end of December and in January the keen
dry cold is distinctly trying. The figures in Statement I, for
Rawalpindi and Peshawar, are not very characteristic of the zone as a
whole. The average of the rainfall figures, 13 inches for Peshawar and
32 for Rawalpindi, would give a truer result. The monsoon rains come
later and are much less abundant than in the submontane zone. Their
influence is very feeble in the western and south-western part of the
area. On the other hand the winter rains, are heavier than in any other
part of the province. Delhi and Lahore represent the extreme conditions
of the central and south-eastern plains. The latter is really on the
edge of the dry south-western area. The eastern districts of the zone
have a shorter and less severe cold weather than the western, an earlier
and heavier monsoon, but scantier winter rains. The total rainfall
varies from 16 to 30 inches. The south-western zone, with a rainfall of
from 5 to 15 inches, is the driest part of India proper except northern
Sindh and western Rajputana. Neither monsoon current affects it much. At
Multan there are only about fifteen days in the whole year on which any
rain falls.
CHAPTER VI
HERBS, SHRUBS, AND TREES
~Affinities of Panjab Flora.~--It is hopeless to describe except in the
broadest outline the flora of a tract covering an area of 250,000 square
miles and ranging in altitude from a few hundred feet to a height 10,000
feet above the limit of flowering plants. The nature of the vegetation
of any tract depends on rainfall and temperature, and only secondarily
on soil. A desert is a tract with a dry substratum and dry air, great
heat during some part of the year, and bright sunshine. The soil may be
loam or sand, and as regards vegetation a sandy desert is the worst
owing to the rapid drying up of the subsoil after rain. In the third of
the maps appended to Schimper's _Plant Geography_ by far the greater
part of the area dealt with in this book is shown as part of the vast
desert extending from the Sahara to Manchuria. Seeing that the monsoon
penetrates into the province and that it is traversed by large snow-fed
rivers the Panjab, except in parts of the extreme western and
south-western districts, is not a desert like the Sahara or Gobi,
and Schimper recognised this by marking most of the area as
semi-desert. Still the flora outside the Hills and the submontane
tract is predominantly of the desert type, being xerophilous or
drought-resisting. The adaptations which enable plants to survive in a
tract deficient in moisture are of various kinds. The roots may be
greatly developed to enable them to tap the subsoil moisture, the
leaves may be reduced in size, converted into thorns, or entirely
dispensed with, in order to check rapid evaporation, they may be covered
with silky or felted hairs, a modification which produces the same
result, or their internal tissue may be succulent or mucilaginous. In
the plants of the Panjab plains there is no difficulty in recognising
these features of a drought-resisting flora. Schimper's map shows in the
north-east of the area a wedge thrust in between the plains' desert and
the dry elevated alpine desert cut off from the influence of the monsoon
by the lofty barrier of the Inner Himalaya. This consists of two parts,
monsoon forest, corresponding roughly with the Himalayan area Cis Ravi
above the 5000 feet contour, and dry woodland of a semi-tropical stamp,
consisting, of the adjoining foot-hills and submontane tract. This wedge
is in fact treated as part of the zone, which in the map (after Drude)
prefixed to Willis' _Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and
Ferns_, is called Indo-Malayan, and which embraces the Malayan
Archipelago and part of North Australia, Burma, and practically the
whole of India except the Panjab, Sindh, and Rajputana. In Drude's map
the three countries last mentioned are included in a large zone called
"the Mediterranean and Orient." This is a very broad classification, and
in tracing the relationships of the Panjab flora it is better to treat
the desert area of North Africa, which in Tripoli and Egypt extends to
the coast, apart from the Mediterranean zone. It is a familiar fact
that, as we ascend lofty mountains like those of the Himalaya, we pass
through belts or regions of vegetation of different types. The air
steadily becomes rarer and therefore colder, especially at night, and at
the higher levels there is a marked reduction in the rainfall. When the
alpine region, which in the Himalaya may be taken as beginning at 11,000
feet, is reached, the plants have as a rule bigger roots, shorter
stems, smaller leaves, but often larger and more brilliantly coloured
flowers. These are adaptations of a drought-resisting kind.
~Regions.~--In this sketch it will suffice to divide the tract into six
regions:
Plains 1. Panjab dry plain.
2. Salt Range and North West Plateau, from
the frontier to Pabbi Hills.
3. Submontane Hills on east bank of Jhelam.
Hills 4. Sub-Himalaya, 2000-5000 feet.
5. Temperate Himalaya, 5000-11,000 feet.
6. Alpine Himalaya, 11,000-16,000 feet.
Of course a flora does not fit itself into compartments, and the changes
of type are gradual.
~Panjab Dry Plain.~--The affinities of the flora of the Panjab plains
south of the Salt Range and the submontane tract are, especially in the
west, with the desert areas of Persia, Arabia, and North Africa, though
the spread of canal irrigation is modifying somewhat the character of
the vegetation. The soil and climate are unsuited to the growth of large
trees, but adapted to scrub jungle of a drought-resisting type, which at
one time covered very large areas from the Jamna to the Jhelam. The soil
on which this sparse scrub grew is a good strong loam, but the rainfall
was too scanty and the water-level too deep to admit of much cultivation
outside the valleys of the rivers till the labours of canal engineers
carried their waters to the uplands. East of the Sutlej the Bikaner
desert thrusts northwards a great wedge of sandy land which occupies a
large area in Bahawalpur, Hissar, Ferozepur, and Patiala. Soil of this
description is free of forest growth, and the monsoon rainfall in this
part of the province is sufficient to encourage an easy, but very
precarious, cultivation of autumn millets and pulses. The great Thal
desert to the south of the Salt Range between the valleys of the Jhelam
and the Indus has a similar soil, but the scantiness of the rainfall has
confined cultivation within much narrower limits. Between the Sutlej and
the Jhelam the uplands between the river valleys are known locally as
Bars. The largest of the truly indigenous trees of the Panjab plains are
the _farash_ (Tamarix articulata) and the thorny _kikar_ (Acacia
Arabica). The latter yields excellent wood for agricultural implements,
and fortunately it grows well in sour soils. Smaller thorny acacias are
the _nimbar_ or _raunj_ (Acacia leucophloea) and the _khair_ (Acacia
Senegal). The dwarf tamarisk, _pilchi_ or _jhao_ (Tamarix dioica), grows
freely in moist sandy soils near rivers. The scrub jungle consists
mostly of _jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), a near relation of the Acacias,
_jal_ or _van_ (Salvadora oleoides), and the coral-flowered _karil_ or
leafless caper (Capparis aphylla). All these show their desert
affinities, the _jand_ by its long root and its thorns, the _jal_ by its
small leathery leaves, and the _karil_ by the fact that it has managed
to dispense with leaves altogether. The _jand_ is a useful little tree,
and wherever it grows the natural qualities of the soil are good. The
sweetish fruit of the _jal_, known as _pilu_, is liked by the people,
and in famines they will even eat the berries of the leafless caper.
Other characteristic plants of the Panjab plains are under Leguminosae,
the _khip_ (Crotalaria burhia), two Farsetias (_farid ki buti_), and the
_jawasa_ or camel thorn (Alhagi camelorum), practically leafless, but
with very long and stout spines; under Capparidaceae several Cleomes,
species of Corchorus (Tiliaceae), under Zygophyllaceae three
Mediterranean genera, Tribulus, Zygophyllum, and Fagonia, under
Solanaceae several Solanums and Withanias, and various salsolaceous
Chenopods known as _lana_.
[Illustration: Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees.]
In the sandier tracts the _ak_ (Calotropis procera, N.O.
Asclepiadaceae), the _harmal_ (Peganum harmala, N.O. Rutaceae), and the
colocynth gourd (Citrullus colocynthis, N.O. Cucurbitaceae), which,
owing to the size of its roots, manages to flourish in the sands of
African and Indian deserts, grow abundantly. Common weeds of cultivation
are Fumaria parviflora, a near relation of the English fumitory, Silene
conoidea, and two Spergulas (Caryophyllaceae), and Sisymbrium Irio
(Cruciferae). A curious little Orchid, Zeuxine sulcata, is found growing
among the grass on canal banks. The American yellow poppy, Argemone
Mexicana, a noxious weed, has unfortunately established itself widely in
the Panjab plain. Two trees of the order Leguminosae, the _shisham_ or
_tali_ (Dalbergia Sissoo) and the _siris_ (Albizzia lebbek), are
commonly planted on Panjab roads. The true home of the former is in
river beds in the low hills or in ravines below the hills. But it is a
favourite tree on roads and near wells throughout the province, and
deservedly so, for it yields excellent timber. The _siris_ on the other
hand is an untidy useless tree. The _kikar_ might be planted as a
roadside tree to a greater extent. Several species of figs, especially
the _pipal_ (Ficus religiosa) and _bor_ or banian (Ficus Indica) are
popular trees.
~Salt Range and North-West Plains.~---Our second region may be taken as
extending from the Pabbi hills on the east of the Jhelam in Gujrat to
our administrative boundary beyond the Indus, its southern limit being
the Salt Range. Here the flora is of a distinctly Mediterranean type.
Poppies are as familiar in Rawalpindi as they are in England or Italy,
and Hypecoum procumbens, a curious Italian plant of the same order, is
found in Attock. The abundance of Crucifers is also a Mediterranean
feature. Eruca sativa, the oil-seed known as _taramira_ or _jamian_,
which sows itself freely in waste land and may be found growing even on
railway tracks in the Rawalpindi division, is an Italian and Spanish
weed. Malcolmia strigosa, which spreads a reddish carpet over the
ground, and Malcolmia Africana are common Crucifers near Rawalpindi. The
latter is a Mediterranean species. The Salt Range genera Diplotaxis and
Moricandia are Italian, and the peculiar Notoceras Canariensis found in
Attock is also a native of the Canary Islands. Another order,
Boraginaceae, which is very prominent in the Mediterranean region, is
also important in the North-West Panjab, though the showier plants of
the order are wanting. One curious Borage, Arnebia Griffithii, seems to
be purely Asiatic. It has five brown spots on its petals, which fade and
disappear in the noonday sunshine. These are supposed to be drops of
sweat which fell from Muhammad's forehead, hence the plant is called
_paighambari phul_ or the prophet's flower. Among Composites Calendulas
and Carthamus oxyacantha or the _pohli_, a near relation of the
Carthamus which yields the saffron dye, are abundant. Both are common
Mediterranean genera. Silybum Marianum, a handsome thistle with large
leaves mottled with white, extends from Britain to Rawalpindi.
Interesting species are Tulipa stellata and Tulipa chrysantha. The
latter is a Salt Range plant, as is the crocus-like Merendera Persica,
and the yellow Iris Aitchisoni. A curious plant found in the same hills
is the cactus-like Boucerosia (N.O. Asclepiadaceae), recalling to
botanists the more familiar Stapelias of the same order. Another
leafless Asclepiad, Periploca aphylla, which extends westwards to Arabia
and Nubia and southwards to Sindh, is, like Boucerosia, a typical
xerophyte adapted to a very dry soil and atmosphere. The thorny Acacias,
A. eburnea and A. modesta (vern. _phulahi_), of the low bare hills of
the N.W. Panjab are also drought-resisting plants.
~Submontane Region.~--The Submontane region consists of a broad belt below
the Siwaliks extending from the Jamna nearly to the Jhelam, and may be
said to include the districts of Ambala, Karnal (part), Hoshyarpur,
Kangra (part), Hazara (part), Jalandhar, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujrat
(part). In its flora there is a strong infusion of Indo-Malayan
elements. An interesting member of it is the Butea frondosa, a small
tree of the order Leguminosae. It is known by several names, _dhak_,
_chichra_, _palah_, and _palas_. Putting out its large orange-red
flowers in April it ushers in the hot weather. It has a wide range from
Ceylon to Bengal, where it has given its name to the town of Dacca and
the battlefield of Plassy (Palasi). From Bengal it extends all the way
to Hazara. There can be no doubt that a large part of the submontane
region was once _dhak_ forest. Tracts in the north of Karnal--Chachra,
in Jalandhar--Dardhak, and in Gujrat--Palahi, have taken their names
from this tree. It coppices very freely, furnishes excellent firewood
and good timber for the wooden frames on which the masonry cylinders of
wells are reared, it exudes a valuable gum, its flowers yield a dye, and
the dry leaves are eaten by buffaloes. A tree commonly planted near
wells and villages in the submontane tract is the _dhrek_ (Melia
azedarach, N.O. Meliaceae), which is found as far west as Persia and is
often called by English people the Persian lilac. The _bahera_
(Terminalia belerica, N.O. Combretaceae), a much larger tree, is
Indo-Malayan. Common shrubs are the _marwan_ (Vitex negundo, N.O.
Verbenaceae), Plumbago Zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), the _bansa_ or
_bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica, N.O. Acanthaceae). The last is Indo-Malayan.
Among herbs Cassias, which do not occur in Europe, are common. The
curious cactus-like Euphorbia Royleana grows abundantly and is used for
making hedges.
~Sub-Himalaya.~--A large part of the Sub-Himalayan region belongs to the
Siwaliks. The climate is fairly moist and subject to less extremes of
heat and cold than the regions described above. A strong infusion of
Indo-Malayan types is found and a noticeable feature is the large number
of flowering trees and shrubs. Such beautiful flowering trees as the
_simal_ or silk-cotton tree (Bombax Malabaricum, N.O. Malvaceae), the
_amaltas_ (Cassia fistula), Albizzia mollis and Albizzia stipulata,
Erythrina suberosa, Bauhinia purpurea and Bauhinia variegata, all
belonging to the order Leguminosae, are unknown in Europe, but common in
the Indo-Malayan region. This is true also of Oroxylum Indicum (N.O.
Bignoniaceae) with its remarkable long sword-like capsules, and of the
_kamila_ (Mallotus Philippinensis), which abounds in the low hills, but
may escape the traveller's notice as its flowers have no charm of form
or colour. He will in spring hardly fail to observe another Indo-Malayan
tree, the _dhawi_ (Woodfordia floribunda, N.O. Lythraceae) with its
bright red flowers. Shrubs with conspicuous flowers are also common,
among which may be noted species of Clematis, Capparis spinosa, Kydia
calycina, Mimosa rubicaulis, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Caryopteris
Wallichiana, and Nerium Oleander. The latter grows freely in sandy
torrent beds. Rhus cotinus, which reddens the hillsides in May, is a
native also of Syria, Italy, and Southern France. Other trees to be
noticed are a wild pear (Pyrus pashia), the olive (Olea cuspidata), the
_khair_ (Acacia catechu) useful to tanners, the _tun_ (Cedrela toona),
whose wood is often used for furniture, the _dhaman_ (Grewia
oppositifolia, N.O. Tiliaceae), and several species of fig. The most
valuable products however of the forests of the lower hills are the
_chir_ or _chil_ pine (Pinus longifolia), and a giant grass, the bamboo
(Dendrocalamus strictus), which attains a height of from 20 to 40 feet.
Shrubs which grow freely on stony hills are the _sanattha_ or _mendru_
(Dodonaea viscosa, N.O. Sapindaceae), which is a valuable protection
against denudation, as goats pass it by, the _garna_, which is a species
of Carissa, and Plectranthus rugosus. Climbers are common. The great
Hiptage madablota (N.O. Malpighiaceae), the Bauhinia Vahlii or elephant
creeper, and some species of the parasitic Loranthus, deserve mention,
also Acacia caesia, Pueraria tuberosa, Vallaris Heynei, Porana
paniculata, and several vines, especially Vitis lanata with its large
rusty leaves. Characteristic herbs are the sweet-scented Viola patrinii,
the slender milkwort; Polygala Abyssinica, a handsome pea, Vigna
vexillata, a borage, Trichodesma Indicum, a balsam, Impatiens balsamina,
familiar in English gardens, the beautiful delicate little blue
Evolvulus alsinoides, the showy purple convolvulus, Ipomaea hederacea,
and a curious lily, Gloriosa superba.
[Illustration: Fig. 20. Deodars and Hill Temple.]
~Temperate Himalaya.~--The richest part of the temperate Himalayan flora
is probably in the 7500-10,000 zone. Above 10,000 feet sup-alpine
conditions begin, and at 12,000 feet tree growth becomes very scanty and
the flora is distinctly alpine. The _chir_ pine so common in
sub-Himalayan forests extends up to 6500 feet. At this height and 1000
feet lower the _ban_ oak (Quercus incana), grey on the lower side of the
leaf, which is so common at Simla, abounds. Where the _chil_ stops, the
_kail_ or blue pine (Pinus excelsa), after the _deodar_ the most
valuable product of Himalayan forests, begins. Its zone may be taken as
from 7000 to 9000 feet. To the same zone belong the _kelu_ or _deodar_
(Cedrus Libani), the glossy leaved _mohru_ oak (Quercus dilatata),
whose wood is used for making charcoal, and two small trees of the Heath
order, Rhododendron arborea and Pieris ovalifolia. The former in April
and May lightens up with its bright red flowers the sombre Simla
forests. The _kharshu_ or rusty-leaved oak (Quercus semecarpifolia)
affects a colder climate than its more beautiful glossy-leaved relation,
and may almost be considered sub-alpine. It is common on Hattu, and the
oaks there present a forlorn appearance after rain with funereal mosses
dripping with moisture hanging from their trunks. The firs, Picea
morinda, with its grey tassels, and Abies Pindrow with its dark green
yew-like foliage, succeed the blue pine. Picea may be said to range from
8000 to 10,000 feet, and the upper limit of Abies is from 1000 to 2000
feet higher. These splendid trees are unfortunately of small commercial
value. The yew, Taxus baccata, is found associated with them. Between
5000 and 8000 feet, besides the oaks and other broad-leaved trees
already noticed, two relations of the dogwood, Cornus capitata and
Cornus macrophylla, a large poplar, Populus ciliata, a pear, Pyrus
lanata, a holly, Ilex dipyrena, an elm and its near relation, Celtis
australis, and species of Rhus and Euonymus, may be mentioned. Cornus
capitata is a small tree, but it attracts notice because the heads of
flowers surrounded by bracts of a pale yellow colour have a curious
likeness to a rose, and the fruit is in semblance not unlike a
strawberry. Above 8000 feet several species of maple abound. The
_chinar_ or Platanus orientalis, found as far west as Sicily, grows to
splendid proportions by the quiet waterways of the Vale of Kashmir. The
undergrowth in temperate Himalayan forests consists largely of
barberries, Desmodiums, Indigoferas, roses, brambles, Spiraeas,
Viburnums, honeysuckles with their near relation, Leycesteria formosa,
which has been introduced into English shrubberies. The great vine,
Vitis Himalayana, whose leaves turn red in autumn, climbs up many of the
trees. Of the flowers it is impossible to give any adequate account. The
flora is distinctly Mediterranean in type; the orders in Collett's
_Flora Simlensis_ which are not represented in the Italian flora contain
hardly more than 5 per cent. of the total genera. The plants included in
some of these non-Mediterranean orders are very beautiful, for example,
the Begonias, the Amphicomes (Bignoniaceae), Chirita bifolia and
Platystemma violoides (Gesneraceae), and Hedychium (Scitamineae). More
important members of the flora are species of Clematis, including the
beautiful white Clematis montana, anemones, larkspurs, columbine,
monkshoods, St John's worts, geraniums, balsams, species of Astragalus,
Potentillas, Asters, ragworts, species of Cynoglossum, gentians and
Swertias, Androsaces and primroses, Wulfenia and louseworts, species of
Strobilanthes, Salvias and Nepetas, orchids, irises, Ophiopogon, Smilax,
Alliums, lilies, and Solomon's seal. Snake plants (Arisaema) and their
relation Sauromatum guttatum of the order Araceae are very common in the
woods. The striped spathe in some species of Arisaema bears a curious
resemblance to the head of a cobra uplifted to strike. Orchids decrease
as one proceeds westwards, but irises are much more common in Kashmir
than in the Simla hills. The Kashmir fritillaries include the beautiful
Crown Imperial.
[Illustration: Fig. 21. Firs in Himalaya.]
[Illustration: Fig. 22. Chinars.]
[Illustration: Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum.]
~Alpine Himalaya.~--In the Alpine Himalaya the scanty tree-growth is
represented by willows, junipers, and birches. After 12,000 or 12,500
feet it practically disappears. A dwarf shrub, Juniperus recurva, is
found clothing hillsides a good way above the two trees of the same
genus. Other alpine shrubs which may be noticed are two rhododendrons,
which grow on cliffs at an elevation of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, R.
campanulatum and R. lepidotum, Gaultheria nummularioides with its
black-purple berry, and Cassiope fastigiata, all belonging to the order
Ericaceae. The herbs include beautiful primulas, saxifrages, and
gentians, and in the bellflower order species of Codonopsis and
Cyananthus. Among Composites may be mentioned the tansies, Saussureas,
and the fine Erigeron multiradiatus common in the forest above Narkanda.
In the bleak uplands beyond the Himalaya tree-growth is very scanty, but
in favoured localities willows and the pencil cedar, Juniperus
pseudosabina, are found. The people depend for fuel largely on a hoary
bush of the Chenopod order, Eurotia ceratoides. In places a profusion of
the red Tibetan roses, Rosa Webbiana, lightens up the otherwise dreary
scene.
CHAPTER VII
FORESTS
~Rights of State in Waste.~--Under Indian rule the State claimed full
power of disposing of the waste, and, even where an exclusive right in
the soil was not maintained, some valuable trees, e.g. the _deodar_ in
the Himalaya, were treated as the property of the Raja. Under the tenure
prevailing in the hills the soil is the Raja's, but the people have a
permanent tenant right in any land brought under cultivation with his
permission. In Kulu the British Government asserted its ownership of the
waste. In the south-western Panjab, where the scattered hamlets had no
real boundaries, ample waste was allotted to each estate, and the
remainder was claimed as State property.
~Kinds of Forest.~--The lands in the Panjab over which authority, varying
through many degrees from full ownership unburdened with rights of user
down to a power of control exercised in the interests of the surrounding
village communities, may be roughly divided into
(_a_) Mountain forests;
(_b_) Hill forests;
(_c_) Scrub and grass _Jangal_ in the Plains.
The first are forests of _deodar_, blue pine, fir, and oak in the
Himalaya above the level of 5000 feet. The hill forests occupy the
lower spurs, the Siwaliks in Hoshyarpur, etc., and the low dry hills of
the north-west. A strong growth of _chir_ pine (Pinus longifolia) is
often found in the Himalaya between 3000 and 5000 feet. Below 3000 feet
is scrub forest, the only really valuable product being bamboo. The
hills in the north-western districts of the Panjab and N.W.F. Province,
when nature is allowed to have its way, are covered with low scrub
including in some parts a dwarf palm (Nannorhops Ritchieana), useful for
mat making, and with a taller, but scantier growth of _phulahi_ (Acacia
modesta) and wild olive. What remains of the scrub and grass _jangal_ of
the plains is to be found chiefly in the Bar tracts between the Sutlej
and the Jhelam. Much of it has disappeared, or is about to disappear,
with the advance of canal irrigation. Dry though the climate is the Bar
was in good seasons a famous grazing area. The scrub consisted mainly of
_jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), _jal_ (Salvadora oleoides), the _karil_
(Capparis aphylla) and the _farash_ (Tamarix articulata).
~Management and Income of Forests.~--The Forest Department of the Panjab
has existed singe 1864, when the first Conservator was appointed. In
1911-12 it managed 8359 square miles in the Panjab consisting of:
Reserved Forests 1844 square miles
Protected " 5203 " "
Unclassed " 1312 " "
It was also in charge of 235 square miles of reserved forest in the
Hazara district of the N.W.F. Province, and of 364 miles of fine
mountain forest in the native State of Bashahr. In addition a few
reserved forests have been made over as grazing areas to the Military
Department, and Deputy Commissioners are in charge of a very large area
of unclassed forest.
No forest can be declared "reserved" or "protected" unless it is owned
in whole or in part by the State. It is enough if the trees or some of
them are the property of the Government. In order to safeguard all
private rights a special forest settlement must be made before a forest
can be declared to be "reserved." In the case of a protected forest it
is enough if Government is satisfied that the rights of the State and of
private persons have been recorded at a land revenue settlement. After
deducting income belonging to the year 1909-10 realized in 1910-11, the
average income of the two years ending 1911-12 was L81,805 (Rs.
1,227,082) and the average expenditure L50,954 (Rs. 764,309).
~Sources of Income.~--In the mountain forests the chief source of income
is the _deodar_, which is valuable both for railway sleepers and as
building timber. The blue pine is also of commercial value. _Deodar_,
blue pine, and some _chir_ are floated down the rivers to depots in the
plains. Firwood is inferior to cedar and pine, and the great fir forests
are too remote for profitable working at present. There are fine
mountain forests in Chitral, on the Safed Koh, and in Western
Waziristan, but these have so far not even been fully explored. The
value of the hill forests may be increased by the success which has
attended the experimental extraction of turpentine from the resin of the
_chir_ pine. The bamboo forests of Kangra are profitable. At present an
attempt is being made to acclimatize several species of Eucalyptus in
the low hills. The scrub _jangal_ in the plains yields good fuel. As the
area is constantly shrinking it is fortunate that the railways have
ceased to depend on this source of supply, coal having to a great extent
taken the place of wood. To prevent shortage of fuel considerable areas
in the tracts commanded by the new canals are being reserved for
irrigated forests. A forest of this class covering an area of 37 square
miles and irrigated from the Upper Bari Doab Canal has long existed at
Changa Manga in the Lahore district.
~Forests in Kashmir.~--The extensive and valuable Kashmir forests are
mountain and hill forests, the former, which cover much the larger area
yielding, _deodar_, blue pine, and firs, and the latter _chir_ pine. The
total area exceeds 2600 square miles.
CHAPTER VIII
BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS
~Fauna.~--With the spread of cultivation and drainage the Panjab plains
have ceased to be to anything like the old extent the haunt of wild
beasts and wild fowl. The lion has long been extinct and the tiger has
practically disappeared. Leopards are to be found in low hills, and
sometimes stray into the plains. Wolves are seen occasionally, and
jackals are very common. The black buck (Antilope cerricapra) can still
be shot in many places. The graceful little _chinkara_ or ravine deer
(Gazella Bennetti) is found in sandy tracts, and the hogdeer or _parha_
(Cervus porcinus) near rivers. The _nilgai_ (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is
less common. Monkeys abound in the hills and in canal-irrigated tracts
in the Eastern districts, where their sacred character protects them
from destruction, though they do much damage to crops. Peafowl are to be
seen in certain tracts, especially in the eastern Panjab. They should
not be shot where the people are Hindus or anywhere near a Hindu shrine.
The great and lesser bustards and several kinds of sand grouse are to be
found in sandy districts. The grey partridge is everywhere, and the
black can be got near the rivers. The _sisi_ and the _chikor_ are the
partridges of the hills, which are also the home of fine varieties of
pheasants including the _monal_. Quail frequent the ripening fields in
April and late in September. Duck of various kinds abound where there
are _jhils_, and snipe are to be got in marshy ground. The green
parrots, crows, and vultures are familiar sights. Both the sharp-nosed
(Garialis Gangetica, vern. _gharial_) and the blunt-nosed (Crocodilus
palustris, vern. magar) crocodiles haunt the rivers. The fish are
tasteless; the _rohu_ and _mahseer_ are the best. Poisonous snakes are
the _karait_, the _cobra_, and Russell's viper. The first is sometimes
an intruder into houses. Lizards and mongooses are less unwelcome
visitors. White ants attack timber and ruin books, and mosquitoes and
sandflies add to the unpleasant features of the hot weather. The best
known insect pest is the locust, but visitations on a large scale are
rare. Of late years much more damage has been done by an insect which
harbours in the cotton bolls.
[Illustration: Fig. 24. Big game in Ladakh.
KEY: 1, 3, 7, 9, Chiru or Tibetan Antelope. 2, Argali or Ovis Ammon. 4,
6, 8, Bharal or Ovis nahura. 5, Yak or Bos grunniens. 10, 11, 12, Urial
or Ovis Vignei. 13, Bear skin.]
~Game of the Mountains.~--If sport in the plains has ceased to be first
rate, it is otherwise in the hills. Some areas and the heights at which
the game is to be found are noted below:
(_a_) Goats and goat-antelopes:
1. Ibex (Capra Sibirica) 10,000-14,000 ft.
Kashmir, Lahul, Bashahr.
2. Markhor (Capra Falconeri). Kashmir, Astor,
Gilgit, Suliman hills.
3. Thar (Hemitragus jemlaicus), 9000-14,000
ft. Kashmir, Chamba.
4. Gural (Cemas goral), 3000-8000 ft. Kashmir,
Chamba, Simla hills, Bashahr.
5. Serow (Nemorhaedus bubalinus), 6000-12,000
ft. From Kashmir eastwards.
(_b_) Sheep:
1. Bharal (Ovis nahura), 10,000-12,000 ft. and
over. Ladakh, Bashahr.
2. Argali (Ovis Ammon). Ladakh.
3. Urial (Ovis Vignei) Salt Range, Suliman
hills.
(_c_) Antelopes:
1. Chiru or Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni).
Ladakh.
(_d_) Oxen--Yak (Bos grunniens). Ladakh. The
domesticated _yak_ is invaluable as a beast of
burden in the Trans-Himalayan tract. The
royal fly whisk or _chauri_ is made from pure
white yak tails.
[Illustration: Fig. 25. Yaks.]
(_e_) Stag:
1. Barasingha (Cervus Duvanceli). Foot of
Himalaya in Kashmir.
(_f_) Bears:
1. Red or Brown (Ursus Arctos), 10,000-13,000
ft. Kashmir, Chamba, Bashahr, etc.
2. Black (Ursus torquatus), 6000-12,000 ft.
Same regions, but at lower elevations.
The small bear of the southern Suliman
hills known as _mam_ is now considered a
variety of the black bear.
(_g_) Leopards:
1. Snow Leopard (Felis Uncia), 9000-15,000 ft.
Kashmir, Chamba, Bashahr.
2. Ordinary Leopard (Felis Pardus). Lower
hills.
SHOOTING IN HILLS
~Shooting in Hills.~--The finest shooting in the north-west Himalaya is
probably to be got in Ladakh and Baltistan, but the trip is somewhat
expensive and requires more time than may be available. In many areas
licenses have to be obtained, and the conditions limit the number of
certain animals, and the size of heads, that may be shot. For example,
the permit in Chamba may allow the shooting of two red bear and two
_thar_, and when these have been got the sportsman must turn his
attention to black bear and _gural_. Any one contemplating a shooting
expedition in the Himalaya should get from one who has the necessary
experience very complete instructions as to weapons, tents, clothing,
stores, etc.
SPORT IN THE PLAINS
(_a_) ~Black Buck Shooting.~--To get a good idea of what shooting in the
plains is like Major Glasford's _Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle_
may be consulted. As regards larger game the favourite sport is black
buck shooting. A high velocity cordite rifle is dangerous to the country
people, and some rifle firing black powder should be used. It is well to
reach the home of the herd soon after sunrise while it is still in the
open, and not among the crops. There will usually be one old buck in
each herd. He himself is not watchful, but his does are, and the herd
gallops off with great leaps at the first scent of danger, the does
leading and their lord and master bringing up the rear. If by dint of
careful and patient stalking you get to some point of vantage, say 100
yards from the big buck, it is worth while to shoot. Even if the bullet
finds its mark the quarry may gallop 50 yards before it drops. Good
heads vary from 20" to 24" or even more.
[Illustration: Fig. 26. Black buck.]
(_b_) ~Small game in Plains.~--The cold weather shooting begins with the
advent of the quail in the end of September and ends when they reappear
among the ripening wheat in April. The duck arrive from the Central
Asian lakes in November and duck and snipe shooting lasts till February
in districts where there are _jhils_ and swampy land. For a decent shot
30 couple of snipe is a fair bag. To get duck the _jhil_ should be
visited at dawn and again in the evening, and it is well to post several
guns in favourable positions in the probable line of flight. 40 or 50
birds would be a good morning's bag. In drier tracts the bag will
consist of partridges and a hare or two, or, if the country is sandy,
some sand-grouse and perhaps a bustard.
CHAPTER IX
THE PEOPLE: NUMBERS, RACES, AND LANGUAGES
~Growth of Population.~--It is probable that in the 64 years since
annexation the population of the Panjab has increased by from 40 to 50
per cent. The first reliable census was taken in 1881. The figures for
the four decennial enumerations are:
|-------------------------------------------------------------|
| | | | |
| | Panjab | N.W.F. | Kashmir |
|Year |----------------------------------| Province | |
| | British | Native | Total | | |
| | | States | | | |
|-------------------------------------------------------------|
|1881 |17,274,597 |3,861,683 |21,136,280 |1,543,726 | |
|1891 |19,009,368 |4,263,280 |23,272,648 |1,857,504 |2,543.952|
|1901 |20,330,337 |4,424,398 |24,754,735 |2,041,534 |2,905,578|
|1911 |19,974,956 |4,212,974 |24,187,730 |2,196,933 |3,158,126|
|-------------------------------------------------------------|
~Incidence of Population in Panjab.~--The estimated numbers of independent
tribes dwelling within the British sphere of influence is 1,600,000. The
incidence of the population on the total area of the Panjab including
native States is 177 per square mile, which may be compared with 189 in
France and 287 in the British Isles. As the map shows, the density is
reduced by the large area of semi-desert country in the south-west and
by the mountainous tract in the north-east. The distribution of the
population is the exact opposite of that which prevails in Great
Britain. There are only 174 towns as compared with 44,400 villages, and
nearly nine-tenths of the people are to be found in the latter. Some of
the so-called towns are extremely small, and the average population per
town is but 14,800 souls. There are no large towns in the European
sense. The biggest, Delhi and Lahore, returned respectively 232,837 and
228,687 persons.
[Illustration: Fig. 27. Map showing density of population.]
[Illustration: Fig. 28. Map showing increase and decrease of
population.]
~Growth stopped by Plague.~--The growth of the population between 1881 and
1891 amounted to 10 p.c. Plague, which has smitten the Panjab more
severely than any other province, appeared in 1896, and its effect was
seen in the lower rate of expansion between 1891 and 1901.
Notwithstanding great extensions of irrigation and cultivation in the
Rechna Doab the numbers declined by 2 p.c. between 1901 and 1911. In the
ten years from 1901 to 1910 in the British districts alone over two
million people died of plague and the death-rate was raised to 12 p.c.
above the normal. It actually exceeded the birth-rate by 2 p.c. Of the
total deaths in the decade nearly one in four was due to plague. The
part which has suffered most is the rich submontane tract east of the
Chenab, Lahore and Gujranwala, and some of the south-eastern districts.
A glance at the map will show how large the loss of population has been
there. It is by no means entirely due to plague. The submontane
districts were almost over-populated, and many of their people have
emigrated as colonists, tenants, and labourers to the waste tracts
brought under cultivation by the excavation of the Lower Chenab and
Jhelam canals. The districts which have received very marked additions
of population from this cause are Jhang (21 p.c.), Shahpur (30 p.c.), and
Lyallpur (45 p.c.). Deaths from plague have greatly increased the
deficiency of females, which has always been a noteworthy feature. In
1911 the proportion had very nearly fallen to four females for every
five males.
~Increase and Incidence in N.W.F. Province.~--The incidence of the
population in the area covered by the five districts of the N.W.F.
Province is 164 per square mile. The district figures are given in the
map in the margin. The increase between 1901 and 1911 in these districts
was 7-1/2 p.c. There have been no severe outbreaks of plague like those
which have decimated the population of some of the Panjab districts.
[Illustration: Fig. 29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
Province.]
General figures for the territory of the Maharaja of Kashmir are
meaningless. In the huge Indus valley the incidence is only 4 persons
per sq. mile. In Jammu and Kashmir it is 138. The map taken from the
Census Report gives the details. The increase in the decade was on
paper 8-1/2 p.c., distributed between 5-1/4 in Jammu, 12 in Kashmir, and
14 in the Indus valley. A great part of the increase in the last must be
put down to better enumeration.
[Illustration: Fig. 30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir.]
~Health and duration of life.~--The climate of the Panjab plains has
produced a vigorous, but not a long-lived, race. The mean age of the
whole population in the British districts is only 25. The normal
birth-rate of the Panjab is about 41 per 1000, which exceeds the English
rate in the proportion of 5 to 3. In 1910 the recorded birth-rate in the
N.W.F. Province was 38 per 1000. Till plague appeared the Panjab
death-rate averaged 32 or 33 per 1000, or more than double that of
England. The infantile mortality is enormous, and one out of every four
or five children fails to survive its first year. The death-rate in the
N.W.F. Province was 27 per 1000 in 1910. In the ten years ending 1910
plague pushed up the average death-rate in the Panjab to 43-1/2 per
1000. Even now malarial fever is a far worse foe than plague. The
average annual deaths in the ten years ending 1910 were:
Fevers 450,376
Plague 202,522
Other diseases 231,473
-------
Total 884,371
-------
Fever is very rife in October and November, and these are the most
unhealthy months in the year, March and April being the best. The
variations under fevers and plague from year to year are enormous. In
1907 the latter claimed 608,685 victims, and the provincial death-rate
reached the appalling figure of 61 per 1000. Next year the plague
mortality dropped to 30,708, but there were 697,058 deaths from fever.
There is unfortunately no reason to believe that plague has spent its
force or that the people as a whole will in the near future generally
accept the protective measures of inoculation and evacuation.
Vaccination, the prejudice against which has largely disappeared, has
robbed the small-pox goddess of many offerings. As a general cause of
mortality the effect of cholera in the Panjab is now insignificant. But
it is still to be feared in the Kashmir valley, especially in the
picturesque but filthy summer capital. Syphilis is very common in the
hill country in the north-east of the province. Blindness and leprosy
are both markedly on the decrease. Both infirmities are common in
Kashmir, especially the former. The rigours of the climate in a large
part of the State force the people to live day and night for the seven
winter months almost entirely in dark and smoky huts, and it is small
wonder that their eyesight is ruined.
~Occupations.~--The Panjab is preeminently an agricultural country, and
the same is true in an almost greater degree of the N.W.F. Province and
Kashmir. The typical holding is that of the small landowner tilling from
3 to 10 acres with his own hands with or without help from village
menials. The tenant class is increasing, but there are still three
owners to two tenants. Together they make up 50 p.c. of the population
of the Panjab, and 5 p.c. is added for farm labourers. Altogether,
according to the census returns 58 p.c. of the population depends for
its support on the soil, 20.5 on industries, chiefly the handicrafts of
the weaver, potter, leather worker, carpenter, and blacksmith, 9.4 on
trade, 2.5 on professions, and 9.6 on other sources of livelihood.
~Measures taken to protect agriculturists.~--In a country owned so largely
by small farmers, the first task of the Government must be to secure
their welfare and contentment. Before plague laid its grasp on the rich
central districts it was feared that they were becoming congested, and
the canal colonization schemes referred to in a later chapter were
largely designed to relieve them. But there is a much subtler foe to
whose insidious attacks small owners are liable, the temptation to abuse
their credit till their acres are loaded with mortgages and finally
lost. So threatening had this economic disease for years appeared that
at last in 1900 the Panjab Alienation of Land Act was passed, which
forbade sales by people of agricultural tribes to other classes without
the sanction of the district officer, and greatly restricted the power
of mortgaging. The same restrictions are in force in the N.W.F.
Province. The Act is popular with those for whose benefit it was
devised, and has effected its object of checking land alienation and
probably to some extent discouraged extravagance. It has been
supplemented by a still more valuable measure, the Co-operative Credit
Societies Act. The growth of these societies in the Panjab has been very
remarkable, a notable contrast to the very slow advance of the similar
movement in England. In 1913-14 there were 3261 village banks with
155,250 members and a working capital of 133-3/4 _lakhs_ or L885,149,
besides 38 central banks with a capital of 42-3/4 _lakhs_ or about
L285,000. Village banks held deposits amounting to nearly 37 _lakhs_,
more than half of which was received from non-members, and lent out
71-1/2 _lakhs_ in the year to their members.
~Tribal Composition.~--Table I based on the Census returns shows the
percentages of the total population belonging to the chief tribes. The
classification into "land-holding, etc." is a rough one.
[Illustration: Fig. 31. Jat Sikh Officers (father and son).]
~Jats.~--The Panjab is _par excellence_ the home of the Jats. Everywhere
in the plains, except in the extreme north-west corner of the province,
they form a large element in the population. In the east they are
Hindus, in the centre Sikhs and Muhammadans, and in the west
Muhammadans. The Jat is a typical son of the soil, strong and sturdy,
hardworking and brave, a fine soldier and an excellent farmer, but
slow-witted and grasping. The Sikh Jat finds an honourable outlet for
his overflowing energy in the army and in the service of the Crown
beyond the bounds of India. When he misses that he sometimes takes to
dacoity. Unfortunately he is often given to strong drink, and, when his
passions or his greed are aroused, can be exceedingly brutal. Jat in the
Western Panjab is applied to a large number of tribes, whose ethnical
affinities are somewhat dubious.
~Rajputs.~--Rajputs are found in considerable numbers all over the
province except in a few of the western and south-western districts. As
farmers they are much hampered by caste rules which forbid the
employment of their women in the fields, and the prohibition of widow
remarriage is a severe handicap. They are generally classed as poor
cultivators, and this is usually, but by no means universally, a true
description. The Dogra Rajputs of the low hills are good soldiers. They
are numerous in Kangra and in the Jammu province of Kashmir.
~Brahmans.~--The Brahmans of the eastern plains and north-eastern hills
are mostly agriculturists, and the Muhial Brahman of the north-western
districts is a landowner and a soldier. In the hills the Brahman is
often a shopkeeper. The priestly Brahman is found everywhere, but his
spiritual authority has always been far less in the Panjab than in most
parts of India.
~Biluches.~--When the frontier was separated off the Biluch district of
Dera Ghazi Khan with its strong tribal organization under chiefs or
_tumandars_ was left in the Panjab. The Biluches are a frank, manly,
truthful race, free from fanaticism and ready as a rule to follow their
chiefs. They are fine horsemen. Unfortunately it is difficult to get
them to enlist.
~Pathans.~--Both politically and numerically the Pathans are the
predominant tribe in the N.W.F. Province, and are of importance in parts
of the Panjab districts of Attock and Mianwali. The Pathan is a democrat
and often a fanatic, more under the influence of _mullahs_ than of the
_maliks_ or headmen of his tribe. He has not the frank straightforward
nature of the Biluch, is untiring in pursuit of revenge, and is not free
from cruelty. But, when he has eaten the _Sarkar's_ salt, he is a very
brave and dashing soldier, and he is a faithful host to anyone whom he
has admitted under his roof.
~Awans.~--The home of the Awan in the Panjab is the Salt Range and the
parts of Attock and Mianwali, lying to the north of it, and this tract
of country is known as the Awankari. In the N.W.F. Province they are,
after the Pathans, by far the largest tribe, and are specially numerous
in Peshawar and Hazara.
~Shekhs.~--Of the Shekhs about half are Kureshis, Sadikis, and Ansaris of
foreign origin and high social standing. The rest are new converts to
Islam, often of the sweeper caste originally.
~Saiyyids.~--Saiyyids are unsatisfactory landowners, and are kept going by
the offerings of their followers. They are mostly Shias. It is not
necessary to believe that they are all descended from the Prophet's
son-in-law, Ali. A native proverb with pardonable exaggeration says:
"The first year I was a weaver (Julaha), the next year a Shekh. This
year, if prices rise, I shall be a Saiyyid."
~Trading Castes.~--Aroras are the traders of the S.W. Panjab and of the
N.W.F. Province. They share the Central Panjab with the Khatris, who
predominate in the north-western districts. The Khatri of the
Rawalpindi division is often a landowner and a first-class fighting
man. Some of our strongest Indian civil officials have been Aroras. In
the Delhi division the place of the Arora and Khatri is taken by the
Bania, and in Kangra by the Sud or the Brahman. Khojas and Parachas are
Muhammadan traders.
~Artizans and Menials.~--Among artizans and menials Sunars (goldsmiths),
Rajes (masons), Lohars (blacksmiths), and Tarkhans (carpenters) take the
first rank.
~Impure Castes.~--The vast majority of the impure castes, the
"untouchables" of the Hindu religion, are scavengers and workers in
leather. The sweeper who embraces Islam becomes a Musalli. The Sikh
Mazhbis, who are the descendants of sweeper converts, have done
excellent service in our Pioneer regiments. The Hindu of the Panjab in
his avoidance of "untouchables" has never gone to the absurd lengths of
the high caste Madrasi, and the tendency is towards a relaxation of
existing restrictions.
~Mendicants.~--Men of religion living on charity, wandering _fakirs_, are
common sights, and beggars are met with in the cities, who sometimes
exhibit their deformities with unnecessary insistence.
~Kashmiris.~--According to the census return the number of Kashmiri
Musulmans, who make up 60 p.c. of the inhabitants of the Jhelam valley,
was 765,442. They are no doubt mostly descendants of various Hindu
castes, perhaps in the main of Hill Brahmans, but Islam has wiped out
all tribal distinctions. Sir Walter Lawrence wrote of them: "The
Kashmiri is unchanged in spite of the splendid Moghal, the brutal
Afghan, and the bully Sikh. Warriors and statesmen came and went; but
there was no egress, and no wish ... in normal times to leave their
homes. The outside world was far, and from all accounts inferior to the
pleasant valley.... So the Kashmiris lived their self-centred life,
conceited, clever, and conservative."
The Hindu Kashmiri Pandits numbered 55,276.
~Tribes of Jammu.~--Agricultural Brahmans are numerous in the Jammu
province. Thakkars and Meghs are important elements of the population of
the outer hills. The former are no doubt by origin Rajputs, but they
have cast off many Rajput customs. The Meghs are engaged in weaving and
agriculture, and are regarded as more or less impure by the higher
castes.
[Illustration: Fig. 32. Blind Beggar.]
~Gujars.~--Gujars in the Maharaja's territories are almost always
graziers. In 1911 they numbered 328,003.
~Dard Tribes of Astor and Gilgit.~--The people of Astor and Gilgit are
Dards speaking Shina and professing Islam. Sir Aurel Stein wrote of
them: "The Dard race which inhabits the valleys N. of (the Inner
Himalaya) as far as the Hindu Kush is separated from the Kashmiri
population by language as well as by physical characteristics.... There
is little in the Dard to enlist the sympathies of the casual observer.
He lacks the intelligence, humour, and fine physique of the Kashmiri,
and, though undoubtedly far braver than the latter, has none of the
independent spirit and manly bearing which draw us towards the Pathan
despite all his failings. But I can never see a Dard without thinking of
the thousands of years of struggle they have carried on with the harsh
climate and the barren soil of their mountains[3]."
[Illustration: Fig. 33. Dards.]
~Kanjutis.~--The origin of the Kanjutis of Hunza is uncertain, and so are
the relationships of their language.
~Mongoloid Population of Ladakh.~--The population of Ladakh and Baltistan
is Mongoloid, but the Baltis (72,439) have accepted Islam and polygamy,
while the Ladakhis have adhered to Buddhism and polyandry.
[Illustration: Fig. 34. Map showing races.]
~Ethnological theories.~--In _The People of India_ the late Sir Herbert
Risley maintained that the inhabitants of Rajputana, nearly the whole of
the Panjab, and a large part of Kashmir, whatever their caste or social
status, belonged with few exceptions to a single racial type, which he
called Indo-Aryan. The Biluches of Dera Ghazi Khan and the Pathans of
the N.W.F. Province formed part of another group which he called
Turko-Iranian. The people of a strip of territory on the west of the
Jamna he held to be of the same type as the bulk of the inhabitants of
the United Provinces, and this type he called Aryo-Dravidian. Finally
the races occupying the hills in the north-east and the adjoining part
of Kashmir were of Mongol extraction, a fact which no one will dispute.
Of the Indo-Aryan type Sir Herbert Risley wrote: "The stature is mostly
tall, complexion fair, eyes dark, hair on face plentiful, head long,
nose narrow and prominent, but not specially long." He believed that the
Panjab was occupied by Aryans, who came into the country from the west
or north-west with their wives and children, and had no need to contract
marriages with the earlier inhabitants. The Aryo-Dravidians of the
United Provinces resulted from a second invasion or invasions, in which
the Aryan warriors came alone and had to intermarry with the daughters
of the land, belonging to the race which forms the staple of the
population of Central India and Madras. This theory was based on
measurements of heads and noses, and it seems probable that deductions
drawn from these physical characters are of more value than any evidence
based on the use of a common speech. But it is hard to reconcile the
theory with the facts of history even in the imperfect shape in which
they have come down to us, or to believe that Sakas, Yuechi, and White
Huns (see historical section) have left no traces of their blood in the
province. If such there are, they may perhaps be found in some of the
tribes on both sides of the Salt Range, such as Gakkhars, Janjuas, Awans
Tiwanas, Ghebas, and Johdras, who are fine horsemen and expert
tent-peggers, not "tall heavy men without any natural aptitude for
horsemanship," as Sir Herbert Risley described his typical Panjabi (p.
59 of his book).
[Illustration: Fig. 35. Map showing distribution of languages.]
~Languages.~--In the area dealt with in this book no less than eleven
languages are spoken, and the dialects are very numerous. It is only
possible to tabulate the languages and indicate on the map the
localities in which they are spoken. For the Panjab the figures of the
recent census are:
A 1. Tibeto-Chinese 41,607
B. Aryan:
(_a_) Iranian: 2. Pashtu 67,174
3. Biluchi 70,675
4. Kohistani 26
(_b_) Indian: 5. Kashmiri 7,190
6. Pahari 993,363
7. Lahndi 4,253,566
8. Sindhi 24
9. Panjabi 14,111,215
10. Western Hindi 3,826,467
11. Rajasthani 725,850
The eastern part of the Indus valley in Kashmir forming the provinces of
Ladakh and Baltistan is occupied by a Mongol population speaking
Tibeto-Chinese dialects. Kashmiri is the language of Kashmir Proper, and
various dialects of the Shina-Khowar group comprehensively described as
Kohistani are spoken in Astor, Gilgit, and Chilas, and to the west of
Kashmir territory in Chitral and the Kohistan or mountainous country at
the top of the Swat river valley. Though Kashmiri and the Shina-Khowar
tongues belong to the Aryan group, their basis is supposed to be
non-Sanskritic, and it is held that there is a strong non-Sanskritic or
Pisacha element also in Lahndi or western Panjabi, which is also the
prevailing speech in the Hazara and Dera Ismail Khan districts of the
N.W.F. Province, and is spoken in part of the Jammu province of Kashmir.
Pashtu is the common language in Peshawar, Kohat, and Bannu, and is
spoken on the western frontiers of Hazara and Dera Ismail Khan, and in
the independent tribal territory in the west between the districts of
the N.W.F. Province and the Durand Line and immediately adjoining the
Peshawar district on the north. Rajasthani is a collective name for the
dialects of Rajputana, which overflow into the Panjab, occupying a
strip along the southern frontier from Bahawalpur to Gurgaon. The
infiltration of English words and phrases into the languages of the
province is a useful process and as inevitable as was the enrichment of
the old English speech by Norman-French. But for the present the results
are apt to sound grotesque, when the traveller, who expects a train to
start at the appointed time, is told: "_tren late hai, lekin singal down
hogaya_" (the train is late, but the signal has been lowered), or the
criticism is passed on a popular officer: "_bahut affable hai, lekin
hand shake nahin karta_" (very affable, but doesn't shake hands).
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 3: _Sand Buried Ruins Of Khotan_, pp. 14-15.]
CHAPTER X
THE PEOPLE (_continued_): RELIGIONS
~Religions in N.W.F. Province.~--In the N.W.F. Province an overwhelming
majority of the population professes Islam. In 1911 there were 2,039,994
Musalmans as compared with 119,942 Hindus, 30,345 Sikhs, and 6585
Christians.
~Religions in Kashmir.~--In Kashmir the preponderance of Muhammadans is
not so overwhelming. The figures are:
Muhammadans 2,398,320
Hindus 690,390
Buddhists 36,512
Sikhs 31,553
The Hindus belong mostly to the Jammu province, where nearly half of the
population professes that faith. The people of Kashmir, Baltistan, Astor
and Gilgit, Chilas and Hunza Nagar, are Musalmans. The Ladakhis are
Buddhists.
~Religions in Panjab.~--The distribution by religions of the population of
the Panjab and its native States in 1911 was:
Muhammadans 12,275,477 or 51 p.c.
Hindus 8,773,621 or 36 p.c.
Sikhs 2,883,729 or 12 p.c.
Others, chiefly Christian (199,751) 254,923 or 1 p.c.
[Illustration: Fig. 36. Map showing distribution of religions.]
The strength of the Muhammadans is in the districts west of the Bias and
the Sutlej below its junction with the Bias. 83 p.c. of the subjects of
the Nawab of Bahawalpur are also Muhammadans. In all this western region
there are few Hindus apart from the shopkeepers and traders. On the
other hand the hill country in the north-east is purely Hindu, except on
the borders of Tibet, where the scanty population professes Buddhism.
While Hinduism is the predominant faith in the south-east, quite a
fourth of the people there are Musalmans. Sikhs nowhere form a majority.
The districts in the eastern part of the Central Plains where they
constitute more than one-fifth of the population are indicated in the
map. In six districts, Lahore, Montgomery, Gujranwala, Lyallpur,
Hoshyarpur, and Ambala the proportion is between 10 and 20 p.c.
[Illustration: Fig. 37. Raghunath Temple, Jammu.]
~Growth and Decline in numbers.~--There was a slight rise in the number of
Muhammadans between 1901 and 1911. Their losses in the central
districts, where the plague scourge has been heaviest, were
counterbalanced by gains in the western tract, where its effect has been
slight. On the other hand the decrease under Hindus amounts to nearly
15 p.c. The birth-rate is lower and the death-rate higher among Hindus
than among Musalmans, and their losses by plague in the central and some
of the south-eastern districts have been very heavy. A change of
sentiment on the part of the Sikh community has led to many persons
recording themselves as Sikhs who were formerly content to be regarded
as Hindus. It must be remembered that one out of four of the recorded
Hindus belongs to impure castes, who even in the Panjab pollute food and
water by their touch and are excluded from the larger temples. Since
1901 a considerable number of Chuhras or Sweepers have been converted to
Islam and Christianity.
[Illustration: Fig. 38. Golden Temple, Amritsar.]
~Sikhs.~--Notwithstanding heavy losses by plague Sikhs have increased by
37 p.c. A great access of zeal has led to many more Sikhs becoming
_Kesdharis_. _Sajhdharis_ or _Munas_, who form over one-fifth of the
whole Sikh community, were in 1901 classed as Hindus. They are followers
of Baba Nanak, cut their hair, and often smoke. When a man has taken the
"_pahul_," which is the sign of his becoming a _Kesdhari_ or follower of
Guru Govind, he must give up the _hukka_ and leave his hair unshorn. The
future of Sikhism is with the _Kesdharis_.
[Illustration: Fig. 39. Mosque in Lahore City.]
~Muhammadans.~--In the eastern districts the conversions to Islam were
political, and Hindu and Muhammadan Rajputs live peaceably together in
the same village. The Musalmans have their mosque for the worship of
Allah, but were, and are still, not quite sure that it is prudent wholly
to neglect the godlings. The conversion of the western Panjab was the
result largely of missionary effort. _Piri muridi_ is a great
institution there. Every man should be the "_murid_" or pupil of some
holy man or _pir_, who combines the functions in the Roman Catholic
Church of spiritual director in this world and the saint in heaven. The
_pir_ may be the custodian of some little saint's tomb in a village, or
of some great shrine like that of Baba Farid at Pakpattan, or Bahawal
Hakk at Multan, or Taunsa Sharif in Dera Ghazi Khan, or Golra in
Rawalpindi. His own holiness may be more official than personal. About
1400 A.D. the Kashmiris were offered by their Sultan Sikandar the choice
between conversion and exile, and chose the easier alternative. Like the
western Panjabis they are above all things saint-worshippers. The
ejaculations used to stimulate effort show this. The embankment builder
in the south-western Panjab invokes the holy breath of Bahawal Hakk, and
the Kashmiri boatman's cry "Ya Pir, dast gir," "Oh Saint, lend me a
hand," is an appeal to their national saint.
~Effect of Education.~--The Musalmans of the western Panjab have a great
dislike to Sikhs, dating from the period of the political predominance
of the latter. So far the result of education has been to accentuate
religious differences and animosities. Both Sikhs and Musalmans are
gradually dropping ideas and observances retained in their daily life
after they ceased to call themselves Hindus. On the other hand, within
the Hindu fold laxity is now the rule rather than the exception, and the
neglect of the old ritual and restrictions is by no means confined to
the small but influential reforming minority which calls itself Arya
Samaj.
~Christians.~--The number of Christians increased threefold between 1901
and 1911. The Presbyterian missionaries have been especially successful
in attracting large numbers of outcastes into the Christian Church.
[Illustration: Fig. 40. God and Goddess, Chamba.]
~Hinduism in the Panjab.~--Hinduism has always been, and to-day is more
than ever, a very elastic term. The Census Superintendent, himself a
high caste Hindu, wrote: "The definition which would cover the Hindu of
the modern times is that he should be born of parents not belonging to
some recognised religion other than Hinduism, marry within the same
limits, believe in God, respect the cow, and cremate the dead." There is
room in its ample folds for the Arya Samajist, who rejects idol worship
and is divesting himself of caste prejudices and marriage restrictions,
and the most orthodox Sanatan dharmist, who carries out the whole
elaborate daily ritual of the Brahmanical religion, and submits to all
its complicated rules; for the ordinary Hindu trader, who is equally
orthodox by profession, but whose ordinary religious exercises are
confined to bathing in the morning; for the villager of the eastern
districts, who often has the name of Parameshvar or the Supreme Lord on
his lips, but who really worships the godlings, Guga Pir, Sarwar or
Sultan Pir, Sitla (the small-pox goddess), and others, whose little
shrines we see round the village site; and for the childish idolaters of
Kulu, who carry their local deities about to visit each other at fairs,
and would see nothing absurd in locking them all up in a dungeon if rain
held off too long.
[Illustration: Fig. 41. A Kulu godling and his attendants.]
CHAPTER XI
THE PEOPLE (_continued_): EDUCATION
~Educational progress.~--According to the census returns of 1911 there are
not four persons per 100 in the province who are "literate" in the sense
of being able to read and write a letter. The proportion of literacy
among Hindus and Sikhs is three times as great as among Muhammadans. In
1911-12 one boy in six of school-going age was at school or college and
one girl in 37. This may seem a meagre result of sixty years of work,
for the Government and Christian missionaries, who have had an
honourable connection with the educational history of the province,
began their efforts soon after annexation, and a Director of Public
Instruction was appointed as long ago as 1856. But a country of small
peasant farmers is not a very hopeful educational field, and the rural
population was for long indifferent or hostile. If an ex-soldier of the
_Khalsa_ had expressed his feelings, he would have used words like those
of the "Old Pindari" in Lyall's poem, while the Muhammadan farmer, had
he been capable of expressing his hostility, might have argued that the
teaching his son could get in a village school would help him not at all
in his daily work. Things are better now. We have improved our scheme of
teaching, and of late raised the pay of the teachers, which is, however,
still hardly adequate. Till a better class of teachers can be secured
for primary schools, the best educational theories will not bear fruit
in practice. The old indifference is weakening, and the most hopeful
sign is the increasing interest taken in towns in female education, a
matter of the first importance for the future of the country.
~Present position.~--The present position is as follows:--The Government
has made itself directly or indirectly responsible for the education of
the province. At the headquarters of each district there is a high
school for boys controlled by the Education Department. In each district
there are Government middle schools, Anglo-vernacular or Vernacular,
and primary schools, managed by the Municipal Committees and District
Boards. Each middle school has a primary, and each high school a primary
and a middle, department. For the convenience of pupils who cannot
attend school while living at home hostels are attached to many middle
and high schools. Fees are very moderate. In middle schools, where the
income covers 56 p.c. of the expenditure, they range from R. 1 (16
pence) monthly in the lowest class in which they are levied to Rs. 4 (5
shillings) in the highest class. In rural primary schools the children
of agriculturists are exempt because they pay local rate, and others,
when not exempt on the score of poverty, pay nominal fees. Besides the
Government schools there are aided schools of the above classes usually
of a sectarian character, and these, if they satisfy the standards laid
down, receive grants. There is a decreasing, but still considerable,
class of private schools, which make no attempt to satisfy the
conditions attached to these grants. The _mullah_ in the mosque teaches
children passages of the Kuran by rote, or the shopkeeper's son is
taught in a Mahajani school native arithmetic and the curious script in
which accounts are kept. A boys' school of a special kind is the Panjab
Chiefs' College at Lahore, intended for the sons of princes and men of
high social position.
~Technical Schools.~--In an agricultural country like the Panjab there is
not at present any large field for technical schools. The best are the
Mayo School of Art and the Railway Technical School at Lahore. The
latter is successful because its pupils can readily find employment in
the railway workshops. Mr Kipling, the father of the poet, when
principal of the former, did much for art teaching, and the present
principal, Bhai Ram Singh, is a true artist. The Government Engineering
School has recently been remodelled and removed to Rasul, where the
head-works of the Lower Jhelam canal are situated.
[Illustration: Fig. 42. A School in the time preceding annexation.
(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for the Maharaja Dalip
Singh._)]
~Female Education.~--Female education is still a tender plant, but of late
growth has been vigorous. The Victoria May School in Lahore founded in
1908 has developed into the Queen Mary College, which provides an
excellent education for girls of what may be called the upper middle
class. There is a separate class for married ladies. Hitherto they have
only been reached by the teaching given in their own homes by missionary
ladies, whose useful work is now being imitated by the Hindu community
in Lahore. There is an excellent Hindu Girls' Boarding School in
Jalandhar. The Sikhs and the body of reformers known as the Dev Samaj
have good girls' schools at Ferozepore. The best mission schools are the
Kinnaird High School at Lahore and the Alexandra School at Amritsar. The
North India School of Medicine for Women at Ludhiana, also a missionary
institution, does admirable work. In the case of elementary schools the
difficulty of getting qualified teachers is even greater than as regards
boys' schools.
~Education of European Children.~--There are special arrangements for the
education of European and Anglo-Indian children. In this department the
Roman Catholics have been active and successful. The best schools are
the Lawrence Asylum at Sanawar, Bishop Cotton's School, Auckland House,
and St Bede's at Simla, St Denys', the Lawrence Asylum, and the Convent
School at Murree.
~The Panjab University.~--The Panjab University was constituted in 1882,
but the Government Arts College and Oriental College, the Medical
College and the Law School at Lahore, which are affiliated with it, are
of older date. The University is an examining body like London
University. Besides the two Arts Colleges under Government management
mentioned above there are nine private Arts Colleges aided by Government
grants and affiliated to the University. Four of these are in Lahore,
two, the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic and the Dial Singh Colleges, are Hindu
institutions, one, the Islamia College, is Muhammadan, the fourth is the
popular and efficient Forman Christian College. Four out of five art
students read in Lahore. Of the Arts colleges outside Lahore the most
important is the St Stephen's College at Delhi. The Khalsa School and
College at Amritsar is a Sikh institution. The Veterinary College at
Lahore is the best of its kind in India, and the Agricultural College at
Lyallpur is a well-equipped institution, which at present attracts few
pupils, but may play a very useful role in the future. There is little
force in the reproach that we built up a super-structure of higher
education before laying a broad foundation of primary education. There
is more in the charge that the higher educational food we have offered
has not been well adapted to the intellectual digestions of the
recipients.
~Education in N.W.F. Province, Native States, and I Kashmir.~--The Panjab
Native States and Kashmir are much more backward as regards education
than the British Province. As is natural in a tract in which the
population is overwhelmingly Musalman by religion and farming by trade
the N.W.F. Province lags behind the Panjab. Six colleges in the States
and the N.W.F. Province are affiliated to the Panjab University.
CHAPTER XII
ROADS AND RAILWAYS
~Roads.~--The alignment of good roads in the plains of the Panjab is easy,
and the deposits of calcareous nodules or _kankar_ often found near the
surface furnish good metalling material. In the west the rainfall is so
scanty and in many parts wheeled traffic so rare that it is often wise
to leave the roads unmetalled. There are in the Panjab over 2000 miles
of metalled, and above 20,000 miles of unmetalled roads. The greatest
highway in the world, the Grand Trunk, which starts from Calcutta and
ends at Peshawar, passes through the province from Delhi in the
south-east to Attock in the extreme north-west corner, and there crosses
the Indus and enters the N.W.F. Province. The greater part of the
section from Karnal to Lahore had been completed some years before the
Mutiny, that from Lahore to Peshawar was finished in 1863-64. A great
loop road connects our arsenal at Ferozepore with the Grand Trunk Road
at Lahore and Ludhiana. The fine metalled roads from Ambala to Kalka,
and Kalka to Simla have lost much of their importance since the railway
was brought to the hill capital. Beyond Simla the Kalka-Simla road is
carried on for 150 miles to the Shipki Pass on the borders of Tibet,
being maintained as a very excellent hill road adapted to mule carriage.
A fine tonga road partly in the plains and partly in the hills joins
Murree with Rawalpindi. From Murree it drops into the Jhelam valley
crossing the river and entering Kashmir at Kohala. It is carried up the
gorge of the Jhelam to Baramula and thence through the Kashmir valley to
Srinagar. A motor-car can be driven all the way from Rawalpindi to
Srinagar. In the N.W.F. Province a great metalled road connects
Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, and Dera Ismail Khan.
[Illustration: Fig. 43. Poplar lined road to Srinagar.]
~Railways. Main Lines.~--It is just over fifty years since the first
railway, a short line joining Lahore and Amritsar, was opened in 1862.
Three years later Lahore was linked up with Multan and the small
steamers which then plied on the Indus. Amritsar was connected with
Delhi in 1870, and Lahore with Peshawar in 1883. The line from Peshawar
to Lahore, and branching thence to Karachi and Delhi may be considered
the Trunk Line. The railway service has been enormously developed in the
past thirty years. In 1912 there were over 4000 miles of open lines.
There are now three routes from Delhi to Lahore:
[Illustration: Fig. 44. Map showing railways.]
(_a_) The N.W. Railway _via_ Meerut and Saharanpur (on east of Jamna),
and Ambala, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Amritsar;
(_b_) The Southern Panjab Railway _via_ Jind, Rohtak, Bhatinda, and
Ferozepore;
(_c_) The Delhi-Ambala-Kalka branch of the East Indian Rallway from
Delhi through Karnal to Ambala, and thence by the N.W. Railway. This is
the shortest route.
The Southern Panjab Railway also connects Delhi with Karachi through its
junction with the N.W. Railway at Samasata to the south of Bahawalpur.
Another route is by a line passing through Rewari and the Merta
junction. Karachi is the natural seaport of the central and western
Panjab. The S.P. Railway now gives an easy connection with Ferozepore
and Ludhiana, and the enormous export of wheat, cotton, etc. from the
new canal colonies is carried by several lines which converge at
Khanewal, a junction on the main line, a little north of Multan.
~Railways. Minor Lines.~--The Sind Sagar branch starting from Lala Musa
between Lahore and Amritsar with smaller lines taking off further north
at Golra and Campbellpur serves the part of the province lying north of
the Salt Range. These lines converge at Kundian in the Mianwali
district, and a single line runs thence southwards to points on the
Indus opposite Dera Ismail Khan and Dera Ghazi Khan, and turning
eastwards rejoins the trunk line at Sher Shah near Multan. There are a
number of branch lines in the plains, some owned by native States.
Strategically a very important one is that which crossing the Indus by
the Khushalgarh bridge unites Rawalpindi with Kohat. The only hill
railway is that from Kalka to Simla. A second is now under construction
which, when completed, will connect Rawalpindi with Srinagar. All these
lines with the exception of the branch of the E.I. Railway mentioned
above are worked by the staff of the N. W. State Railway, whose manager
controls inside and outside the Panjab some 5000 miles of open line. The
interest earned in 1912 was 4-1/2 p.c., a good return when it is
considered that the parts of the system to the north of the Salt Range
and the Sind Sagar railway were built primarily for strategic reasons.
CHAPTER XIII
CANALS
~Importance of Canals.~--One need have no hesitation in placing among the
greatest achievements of British rule in the Panjab the magnificent
system of irrigation canals which it has given to the province. Its
great alluvial plain traversed by large rivers drawing an unfailing
supply of water from the Himalayan snows affords an ideal field for the
labours of the canal engineer. The vastness of the arid areas which
without irrigation yield no crops at all or only cheap millets and
pulses makes his works of inestimable benefit to the people and a source
of revenue to the State.
~Canals before annexation.~--In the west of the province we found in
existence small inundation canals dug by the people with some help from
their rulers. These only ran during the monsoon season, when the rivers
were swollen. In 1626 Shahjahan's Persian engineer, Ali Mardan Khan,
brought to Delhi the water of the canal dug by Firoz Shah as a monsoon
channel and made perennial by Akbar. But during the paralysis of the
central power in the eighteenth century the channels became silted up.
The same able engineer dug a canal from the Ravi near Madhopur to water
the royal gardens at Lahore. What remained of this work at annexation
was known as the Hasli.
~Extent of Canal Irrigation.~--In 1911-12, when the deficiency of the
rainfall made the demand for water keen, the canals of the Panjab and
the N.W.F. Province irrigated 8-1/2 millions of acres. The figures are:
_Panjab_
A. Permanent Canals Acres Interest earned %
1. Western Jamna 775,450 7-3/4
2. Sirhind 1,609,458 8
3. Upper Bari Doab 1,156,808 11-1/2
4. Lower Chenab 2,334,090 34
5. Lower Jhelam 801,649 10-1/3
B. Monsoon Canals 1,654,437
Total 8,331,892
_N.W. Frontier Province_
Acres Interest earned %
Lower Swat River 157,650 9-3/4
Two minor Canals 67,510
Total 225,160
On the Sirhind Canal, on which the demand fluctuates greatly with the
character of the season, the area was twice the normal. The three canals
of the Triple Project will, when fully developed, add 1,871,000 acres to
the irrigated area of the Panjab, and the Upper Swat Canal will increase
that of the N.W.F. Province by 381,000 acres. The canals will therefore
in a year of drought be able to water over ten millions of acres without
taking account of possible extensions if a second canal should be drawn
from the Sutlej. The money spent from imperial funds on Panjab canals
has exceeded twelve millions sterling, and no money has ever been better
spent. In, when the area irrigated was a good deal less than in, the
value of the crops raised by the use of canal water was estimated at
about 207 millions of rupees or nearly L14,000,000. It is only possible
to note very briefly the steps by which this remarkable result has been
achieved.
[Illustration: Fig. 45. Map--Older Canals.]
~Western Jamna Canal.~--Soon after the assumption of authority at Delhi in
1803 the question of the old Canal from the Jamna was taken up. The
Delhi Branch was reopened in 1819, and the Hansi Branch six years later.
In the famine year nearly 400,000 acres were irrigated. For more than
half a century that figure represented the irrigating capacity of the
canal. The English engineers in the main retained the faulty Moghal
alignment, and waterlogging of the worst description developed. The
effect on the health of the people was appalling. After long delay the
canal was remodelled. The result has been most satisfactory in every
way. In the last decade of the nineteenth century the Sirsa Branch and
the Nardak Distributary were added, to carry water to parts of the
Karnal and Hissar districts where any failure of the monsoon resulted in
widespread loss of crops. If a scheme to increase the supply can be
carried out, further extension in tracts now very liable to famine will
become possible. In the six years ending the interest earned exceeded 8
p.c.
~Upper Bari Doab Canal.~--The headworks of the Upper Bari Doab Canal are
above Madhopur near the point where the Ravi leaves the hills. The work
was started soon after annexation, but only finished in 1859. Irrigation
has grown from 90,000 acres in to 533,000 in, 861,000 in 1900-1, and
1,157,000 in. The later history of the canal consists mainly of great
extensions in the arid Lahore district, and the irrigation there is now
three-fifths of the whole. In parts of Amritsar, and markedly near the
city, waterlogging has become a grave evil, but remedial measures have
now been undertaken. The interest earned on the capital expenditure in
the six years ending averaged 11-1/2 p.c.
~Sirhind Canal.~--A quarter of a century passed after the Upper Bari Doab
Canal began working before the water of the Sutlej was used for
irrigation. The Sirhind Canal weir is at Rupar where the river emerges
from the Siwaliks. Patiala, Jind, and Nabha contributed to the cost, and
own three of the five branches. But the two British branches are
entitled to nearly two-thirds of the water, which is utilized in the
Ludhiana and Ferozepore districts and in the Faridkot State. The soil of
the tract commanded is for the most part a light sandy loam, and in
years of good rainfall it repays dry cultivation. The result is that the
area watered fluctuates largely. But in the six years ending the
interest earned averaged 7 p.c., and the power of expansion in a bad
year is a great boon to the peasantry.
~Canal extensions in Western Panjab.~--In the last quarter of a century
the chief task of the Canal Department in the Panjab has been the
extension of irrigation to the Rechna and Jech Doabs and the lower part
of the Bari Doab. All three contained large areas of waste belonging to
the State, mostly good soil, but incapable of cultivation owing to the
scanty rainfall. Colonization has therefore been an important part of
all the later canal projects. The operations have embraced the
excavation of five canals.
~Lower Chenab Canal.~--The Lower Chenab Canal is one of the greatest
irrigation works in the world, the area commanded being 3-1/3 million
acres, the average discharge four or five times that of the Thames at
Teddington, and the average irrigated area 2-1/4 million acres. There
are three main branches, the Rakh, the Jhang, and the Gugera. The supply
is secured by a great weir built across the Chenab river at Khanki in
the Gujranwala district, and the irrigation is chiefly in the
Gujranwala, Lyallpur, and Jhang districts. In the four years ending the
average interest earned was 28 p.c., and in future the rate should
rarely fall below 30 p.c. The capital expenditure has been a little over
L2,000,000. The interest charges were cleared about five years after the
starting of irrigation, and the capital has already been repaid to the
State twice over.
[Illustration: Fig. 46. Map--Canals.]
~Lower Jhelam Canal.~--The Lower Jhelam Canal, which waters the tract
between the Jhelam and Chenab in the Shahpur and Jhang districts, is a
smaller and less profitable work. The culturable commanded area is about
one million acres. The head-works are at Rasul in the Gujrat district.
Irrigation began in 1901. In the four years ending 1911-12 the average
area watered was 748,000 acres and the interest earned exceeded 10 p.c.
~Triple Project--Upper Jhelam and Upper Chenab Canals and Lower Bari Doab
Canal.~--The Lower Chenab Canal takes the whole available supply of the
Chenab river. But it does not command a large area in the Rechna Doab
lying in the west of Gujranwala, in which rain cultivation is very risky
and well cultivation is costly. No help can be got from the Ravi, as the
Upper Bari Doab Canal exhausts its supply. Desirable as the extension of
irrigation in the areas mentioned above is, the problem of supplying it
might well have seemed insuperable. The bold scheme known as the Triple
Project which embraces the construction of the Upper Jhelam, Upper
Chenab, and Lower Bari Doab Canals, is based on the belief that the
Jhelam river has even in the cold weather water to spare after feeding
the Lower Jhelam Canal. The true _raison d'etre_ of the Upper Jhelam
Canal, whose head-works are at Mangla in Kashmir a little north of the
Gujrat district, is to throw a large volume of water into the Chenab at
Khanki, where the Lower Chenab Canal takes off, and so set free an equal
supply to be taken out of the Chenab higher up at Merala in Sialkot,
where are the head-works of the Upper Chenab Canal. But the Upper Jhelam
Canal will also water annually some 345,000 acres in Gujrat and Shahpur.
The Upper Chenab Canal will irrigate 648,000 acres mostly in Gujranwala,
and will be carried across the Ravi by an aqueduct at Balloke in the
south of Lahore. Henceforth the canal is known as the Lower Bari Doab,
which will water 882,000 acres, mostly owned by the State, in the
Montgomery and Multan districts. On the other two canals the area of
Government land is not large. The Triple Project is approaching
completion, and irrigation from the Upper Chenab Canal has begun. The
engineering difficulties have been great, and the forecast does not
promise such large gains as even the Lower Jhelam Canal. But a return of
7-1/2 p.c. is expected.
~Monsoon or Inundation Canals.~--The numerous monsoon or inundation
canals, which take off from the Indus, Jhelam, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej,
though individually petty works, perform an important office in the
thirsty south-western districts. By their aid a _kharif_ crop can be
raised without working the wells in the hot weather, and with luck the
fallow can be well soaked in autumn, and put under wheat and other
spring crops. For the maturing of these crops a prudent cultivator
should not trust to the scanty cold weather rainfall, but should
irrigate them from a well. The Sidhnai has a weir, but may be included
in this class, for there is no assured supply at its head in the Ravi in
the winter. In 1910-11 the inundation canals managed by the State
watered 1,800,000 acres. There are a number of private canals in
Ferozepore, Shahpur, and the hill district of Kangra. In Ferozepore the
district authorities take a share in the management.
~Colonization of Canal Lands.~--The colonization of huge areas of State
lands has been an important part of new canal schemes in the west of the
Panjab. When the Lower Chenab Canal was started the population of the
vast Bar tract which it commands consisted of a few nomad cattle owners
and cattle thieves. It was a point of honour to combine the two
professions. Large bodies of colonists were brought from the crowded
districts of the central Panjab. The allotments to peasants usually
consisted of 55 acres, a big holding for a man who possibly owned only
four or five acres in his native district. There were larger allotments
known as yeoman and capitalist grants, but the peasants are the only
class who have turned out quite satisfactory farmers. Colonization began
in 1892 and was practically complete by 1904, when over 1,800,000 acres
had been allotted. To save the peasants from the evils which an
unrestricted right of transfer was then bringing on the heads of many
small farmers in the Panjab it was decided only to give them permanent
inalienable tenant right. The Panjab Alienation of Land Act, No. XIII of
1900, has supplied a remedy generally applicable, and the peasant
grantees are now being allowed to acquire ownership on very easy terms.
The greater part of the colony is in the new Lyallpur district, which
had in 1911 a population of 857,511 souls.
On the Lower Jhelam Canal the area of colonized land exceeds 400,000
acres. A feature of colonization on that canal is that half the area is
held on condition of keeping up one or more brood mares, the object
being to secure a good class of remounts. Succession to these grants is
governed by primogeniture. On the Lower Bari Doab Canal a very large
area is now being colonized.
~Canals of the N.W.F. Province.~--Hemmed in as the N.W.F. Province is
between the Indus and the Hills, its canals are insignificant as
compared with the great irrigation works of the Panjab. The only ones of
any importance are in the Peshawar Valley. These draw their supplies
from the Kabul, Bara, and Swat rivers, but the works supplied by the
first two streams only command small areas. The Lower Swat Canal was
begun in 1876, but the tribesmen were hostile and the diggers had to
sleep in fortified enclosures. The work was not opened till 1885. A reef
in the river has made it possible to dispense with a permanent weir. The
country is not an ideal one for irrigation, being much cut up by
ravines. But a large area has been brought under command, and the
irrigation has more than once exceeded 170,000 acres. In 1911-12 it was
157,650 acres, and the interest earned was 9-3/4 p.c. The Upper Swat
Canal, which was opened in April 1914, was a more ambitious project,
involving the tunnelling at the Malakand of 11,000 feet of solid rock.
The commanded area is nearly 450,000 acres, including 40,000 beyond our
administrative frontier. The estimated cost is Rs. 18,240,000 or over
L1,200,000 and the annual irrigation expected is 381,562 acres.
[Illustration:
{ Kabul River Canal.
Areas commanded by { L. Swat Canal.
{ U. Swat Canal.
Fig. 47. Map of Canals of Peshawar district.]
CHAPTER XIV
AGRICULTURE AND CROPS
~Classification by Zones.~--In order to give an intelligible account of
the huge area embraced by the Panjab, N.W.F. Province, and Kashmir it is
necessary to make a division of the area into zones. Classification must
be on very broad lines based on differences of altitude, rainfall, and
soil, leading to corresponding differences in the cultivation and the
crops. For statistical purposes districts must be taken as a whole,
though a more accurate classification would divide some of them between
two zones.
~Classes of Cultivation.~--The broadest division of cultivation is into
irrigated and unirrigated, the former including well (_chahi_), canal
(_nahri_), and _abi_. The last term describes a small amount of land
watered from tanks or _jhils_ in the plains and a larger area in the
hills irrigated by _kuhls_ or small artificial channels. "Unirrigated"
embraces cultivation dependent on rain (_barani_) or on flooding or
percolation from rivers (_sailab_). (See Table II.)
~Harvests.~--There are two harvests, the autumn or _kharif_, and the
spring or _rabi_. The autumn crops are mostly sown in June and July and
reaped from September to December. Cotton is often sown in March. Cane
planted in March and cut in January and February is counted as a
_kharif_ crop. The spring crops are sown from the latter part of
September to the end of December. They are reaped in March and April.
Roughly in the Panjab three-fifths of the crops belong to the spring
harvest. In the N.W.F. Province the proportion is somewhat higher. In
Kashmir the autumn crop is by far the more important.
[Illustration: Fig. 48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka.]
~Implements of Husbandry and Wells.~--The implements of husbandry are
simple but effective in a land where as a rule there is no advantage in
stirring up the soil very deep. With his primitive plough (_hal_) and a
wooden clodcrusher (_sohaga_) the peasant can produce a tilth for a crop
like cane which it would be hard to match in England. There are two
kinds of wells, the _charsa_ or rope and bucket well and the _harat_ or
Persian wheel.
~Rotations.~--The commonest rotation in ordinary loam soils is to put in a
spring and autumn crop in succession and then let the land lie fallow
for a year. Unless a good deal of manure is available this is the course
to follow, even in the case of irrigated land. Some poor hard soils are
only fit for crops of coarse rice sown after the embanked fields have
been filled in the monsoon by drainage from surrounding waste. Other
lands are cropped only in the autumn because the winter rainfall is very
scanty. Flooded lands are often sown only for the spring harvest.
[Illustration: Fig. 49. A drove of goats--Lahore.]
~Cattle, Sheep, and Goats.~--In 1909 there were in the British districts
of the Panjab 4-1/4 million bullocks and 625,000 male buffaloes
available to draw 2,169,000 ploughs and 288,000 carts, thresh the corn,
and work a quarter of a million wells, besides sugar, oil, and flour
mills. The cattle of the hills, N.W. Panjab, and riverain tracts are
undersized, but in the uplands of the Central Panjab and S.E. districts
fine oxen are used. The horned cattle share 18 millions of pasture land,
much extremely poor, with 4 million sheep and 5-1/2 million goats.
Hence the enormous area devoted to fodder crops.
~Zones.~--Six zones can be distinguished, but, as no district is wholly
confined to the mountain zone, it must for statistical purposes be
united to the submontane zone:
(_a_) Mountain above 5000 feet Panjab--Kangra, Simla, Native
States in Hills, Ambala,
Hoshyarpur.
(_b_) Submontane N.W.F. Province. Hazara,
Kashmir--whole
(_c_) North Central Plain Panjab--Gujrat, Sialkot, Gurdaspur,
Amritsar, Jalandhar,
Ludhiana, Kapurthala,
Malerkotla, Powadh
tract in Phulkian States.
(_d_) North-West Area Panjab--Rawalpindi, Jhelam,
Attock, Mianwali.
N.W.F.P.--Peshawar, Kohat,
Bannu.
(_e_) South-Western Plains Panjab--Gujranwala, Lahore,
Shahpur, Jhang, Lyallpur,
Montgomery, Multan,
Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghazi
Khan, Bahawalpur.
N.W.F.P.--Dera Ismail Khan.
(_f_) South-Eastern Area Panjab--Karnal, Rohtak, Gurgaon,
Hissar, Ferozepore,
Faridkot, Jangal tract in
Phulkian States, Native
States territory adjoining
Gurgaon and Rohtak.
~Mountain and Submontane Zones.~--In the Mountain Zone the fields are
often very minute, consisting of narrow terraces supported by stone
revetments built up the slopes of hills. That anyone should be ready to
spend time and labour on such unpromising material is a sign of pressure
of population on the soil, which is a marked feature of some hill
tracts.
[Illustration: Fig. 50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazara.]
Below 8000 feet the great crop is maize. Potatoes have been introduced
near our hill stations. The chief pulse of the mountain zone is _kulath_
(Dolichos biflorus), eaten by the very poor. Wheat ascends to 8000 or
9000 feet, and at the higher levels is reaped in August. Barley is grown
at much greater heights. Buckwheat (_ugal_, _trumba_, _drawi_),
amaranth (_chaulai_, _ganhar_, _sariara_), and a tall chenopod (_bathu_)
are grown in the mountain zone. Buckwheat is common on poor stony lands.
[Illustration: Fig. 51. Preparing rice field in the Hills.]
The only comparatively flat land is on the banks above river beds, which
are devoted to rice cultivation, the water being conducted to the
embanked fields by an elaborate system of little canals or _kuhls_. This
is the only irrigation in the mountains, and is much valued. The
Submontane Zone has a rainfall of from 30 to 40 inches. Well irrigation
is little used and the dry crops are generally secure. Wheat and maize
are the great staples, but gram and _chari_, i.e. _jowar_ grown for
fodder, are also important. Some further information about Kashmir
agriculture will be found in a later chapter. For full details about
classes of cultivation and crops in all the zones Tables II, III and IV
should be consulted.
~North Central Panjab Plain.~--The best soils and the finest tillage are
to be found in the North Central Zone. Gujrat has been included in it,
though it has also affinities in the north with the North-West area, and
in the south with the South-Western plain. The rainfall varies from 25
to 35 inches. One-third of the cultivated area is protected by wells,
and the well cultivation is of a very high class in Ludhiana and
Jalandhar, where heavily manured maize is followed by a fine crop of
wheat, and cane is commonly grown. In parts of Sialkot and Gujrat the
well cultivation is of a different type, the area served per well being
large and the object being to protect a big acreage of wheat in the
spring harvest. The chief crops in this zone are wheat and _chari_. The
latter is included under "Other Fodder" in Tables III and IV.
~North-Western Area.~--The plateau north of the Salt Range has a very
clean light white sandy loam soil requiring little ploughing and no
weeding. It is often very shallow, and this is one reason for the great
preference for cold weather crops. _Kharif_ crops are more liable to be
burned up. Generally speaking the rainfall is from 15 to 25 inches, the
proportion falling in the winter and spring being larger than elsewhere.
There is, except in Peshawar and Bannu, where the conditions involve a
considerable divergence from the type of this zone, practically no canal
irrigation. The well irrigation is unimportant and in most parts
consists of a few acres round each well intensively cultivated with
market-gardening crops. The dry crops are generally very precarious. In
Mianwali the Indus valley is a fine tract, but the harvests fluctuate
greatly with the extent of the floods. The Thal in Mianwali to the south
of the Sind Sagar railway is really a part of the next zone.
~The South-Western Plains.~--This zone contains nine districts. With the
exception of the three on the north border of the zone they have a
rainfall of from 5 to 10 inches. Of these six arid districts, only one,
Montgomery, has any dry cultivation worth mentioning. In the zone as a
whole three-fourths of the cultivation is protected by canals or wells,
or by both. In the lowlands near the great rivers cultivation depends on
the floods brought to the land direct or through small canals which
carry water to parts which the natural overflow would not reach. In the
uplands vast areas formerly untouched by the plough have been brought
under tillage by the help of perennial canals, and the process of
reclamation is still going on. The Thal is a large sandy desert which
becomes more and more worthless for cultivation as one proceeds
southwards. In the north the people have found out of late years that
this unpromising sand can not only yield poor _kharif_ crops, but is
worth sowing with gram in the spring harvest. The expense is small, and
a lucky season means large profits. In Dera Ghazi Khan a large area of
"_pat_" below the hills is dependent for cultivation on torrents. The
favourite crop in the embanked fields into which the water is diverted
is _jowar_.
~The South-Eastern Plains.~--In the south-eastern Panjab except in Hissar
and the native territory on the border of Rajputana, the rainfall is
from 20 to 30 inches. In Hissar it amounts to some 15 inches. These are
averages; the variations in total amount and distribution over the
months of the year are very great. In good seasons the area under dry
crops is very large, but the fluctuations in the sown acreage are
extraordinary, and the matured is often far below the sown area. The
great crops are gram and mixtures of wheat or barley with gram in the
spring, and _bajra_ in the autumn, harvest. Well cultivation is not of
much importance generally, though some of it in the Jamna riverain is
excellent. The irrigated cultivation depends mainly on the Western Jamna
and Sirhind canals, and the great canal crops are wheat and cotton. This
is the zone in which famine conditions are still most to be feared.
In the Panjab as a whole about one-third of the cultivated area is
yearly put under wheat, which with _bajra_ and maize is the staple food
of the people. A large surplus of wheat and oil-seeds is available for
export.
[Illustration: Fig. 52. Carved doorway.]
CHAPTER XV
HANDICRAFTS AND MANUFACTURES
~Handicrafts.~--The chief handicrafts of the province are those of the
weaver, the shoemaker, the carpenter, the potter, and the worker in
brass and copper. The figures of the 1911 census for each craft
including dependents were: weavers 883,000; shoemakers 540,000;
carpenters 381,000; potters and brickmakers 349,000; metalworkers
240,000. The figures for weavers include a few working in factories. The
hand-spun cotton-cloth is a coarse strong fabric known as "_khaddar_"
with a single warp and weft. "_Khes_" is a better article with a double
warp and weft. "_Susi_" is a smooth cloth with coloured stripes used for
women's trousers. A superior kind of checked "_khes_" known as
"_gabrun_" is made at Ludhiana. The native process of weaving is slow
and the weavers are very poor. The Salvation Army is trying to introduce
an improved hand loom. Fine "_lungis_" or turbans of cotton with silk
borders are made at Ludhiana, Multan, Peshawar, and elsewhere. Effective
cotton printing is carried on by very primitive methods at Kot Kamalia
and Lahore. Ludhiana and Lahore turn out cotton _daris_ or rugs. Coarse
woollen blankets or _lois_ are woven at various places, and coloured
felts or _namdas_ are made at Ludhiana, Khushab, and Peshawar. Excellent
imitations of Persian carpets are woven at Amritsar, and the Srinagar
carpets do credit to the Kashmiris' artistic taste. The best of the
Amritsar carpets are made of _pashm_, the fine underwool of the Tibetan
sheep, and _pashmina_ is also used as a material for _choghas_
(dressing-gowns), etc. Coarse woollen cloth or _pattu_ is woven in the
Kangra hills for local use. At Multan useful rugs are made whose fabric
is a mixture of cotton and wool. More artistic are the Biluch rugs made
by the Biluch women with geometrical patterns. These are excellent in
colouring. They are rather difficult to procure as they are not made for
sale. The weaving of China silk is a common industry in Amritsar,
Bahawalpur, Multan, and other places. The _phulkari_ or silk embroidery
of the village maidens of Hissar and other districts of the Eastern
Panjab, and the more elaborate gold and silver wire embroideries of the
Delhi _bazars_, are excellent. The most artistic product of the plains
is the ivory carving of Delhi. As a wood-carver the Panjabi is not to be
compared with the Kashmiri. His work is best fitted for doorways and the
bow windows or _bokharchas_ commonly seen in the streets of old towns.
The best carvers are at Bhera, Chiniot, Amritsar, and Batala. The
European demand has produced at Simla and other places an abundant
supply of cheap articles of little merit. The inlaid work of Chiniot and
Hoshyarpur is good, as is the lacquer-work of Pakpattan. The papier
mache work of Kashmir has much artistic merit (Fig. 55), and some of the
repousse silver work of Kashmir is excellent.
[Illustration: Fig. 53. Shoemaker's craft.]
The craft of the _thathera_ or brass worker is naturally most prominent
in the Eastern Panjab, because Hindus prefer brass vessels for cooking
purposes. Delhi is the great centre, but the trade is actively carried
on at other places, and especially at Jagadhri.
Unglazed pottery is made practically in every village. The blue
enamelled pottery of Multan and the glazed Delhi china ware are
effective. The manufacture of the latter is on a very petty scale.
[Illustration: Fig. 54. Carved windows.]
[Illustration: Fig. 55. Papier mache work ~of~ Kashmir.]
~Factories.~--The factory industries of the Panjab are still very small.
In 1911 there were 268 factories employing 28,184 hands. The typical
Panjab factory is a little cotton ginning or pressing mill. The grinding
of flour and husking of rice are sometimes part of the same business.
The number of these mills rose in the 20 years ending 1911 from 12 to
202, and there are complaints that there are now too many factories.
Cotton-spinning has not been very successful and the number of mills in
1911, eight, was the same as in 1903-4. The weaving is almost entirely
confined to yarn of low counts. Part is used by the hand-loom weavers
and part is exported to the United Provinces. Good woollen fabrics are
turned out at a factory at Dhariwal in the Gurdaspur district. There
were in 1911 fifteen flour mills, ten ironworks, three breweries, and
one distillery.
[Illustration: Fig. 56. The Potter.
(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Maharaja Dalip
Singh._)]
~Joint-Stock Companies.~--The Panjab has not reached the stage where the
joint-stock business successfully takes the place of the family banking
or factory business. In 1911 there were 194 joint-stock companies. But
many of these were provident societies, the working of which has been
attended with such abuses that a special act has been passed for their
control. A number of banks and insurance companies have also sprung up
of late years. Of some of these the paid up capital is absurdly small,
and the recent collapse of the largest and of two smaller native banks
has drawn attention to the extremely risky nature of the business done.
Of course European and Hindu family banking businesses of the old type
stand on quite a different footing. Some of the cotton and other mills
are joint-stock concerns.
CHAPTER XVI
EXPORTS AND IMPORTS
~Trade.~--In 1911-12 the exports from the Panjab, excluding those by land
to Central Asia, Ladakh, and Afghanistan, were valued at Rs.
27,63,21,000 (L18,421,000), of which 61 p.c. went to Karachi and about
10 p.c. to Calcutta and Bombay. Of the total 27 p.c. consisted of wheat,
nearly the whole of which was dispatched to Karachi. All other grains
and pulses were about equal in value to the wheat. "Gram and other
pulses" (18 p.c. of total exports) was the chief item. Raw cotton
accounts for 15, and oil-seeds for 10 p.c. The imports amounted in value
to Rs. 30,01,28,000 (L20,008,000), little more than one-third being
received from Karachi. Cotton piece goods (Foreign 22, Indian 8-1/2
p.c.) make up one-third of the total. The other important figures are
sugar 12, and metals 11 p.c. The land trade with Afghanistan, Central
Asia, and Ladakh is insignificant, but interesting as furnishing an
example of modes of transport which have endured for many centuries, and
of the pursuit of gain often under appalling physical difficulties.
CHAPTER XVII
HISTORY--PRE-MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 500 B.C.--1000 A.D.
~In Hindu period relations of Panjab were with western kingdoms.~--The
large tract included in the British province of the Panjab which lies
between the Jamna and the Ghagar is, having regard to race, language,
and past history, a part of Hindustan. Where "Panjab" is used without
qualification in this section the territories west of the Ghagar and
south of Kashmir are intended. The true relations of the Panjab and
Kashmir during the Hindu period were, except for brief intervals, with
Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkistan rather than with the great kingdoms
founded in the valley of the Ganges and the Jamna.
~Normal division into petty kingdoms and tribal confederacies.~--The
normal state of the Panjab in early times was to be divided into a
number of small kingdoms and tribal republics. Their names and the areas
which they occupied varied from time to time. Names of kingdoms that
have been rescued from oblivion are Gandhara, corresponding to Peshawar
and the valley of the Kabul river, Urasa or Hazara, where the name is
still preserved in the Orash plain, Taxila, which may have corresponded
roughly to the present districts of Rawalpindi and Attock with a small
part of Hazara, Abhisara or the low hills of Jammu, Kashmir, and
Trigartta, with its capital Jalandhara, which occupied most of the
Jalandhar division north of the Sutlej and the states of Chamba, Suket,
and Mandi. The historians of Alexander's campaigns introduce us also to
the kingdoms of the elder Poros on both banks of the Jhelam, of the
younger Poros east of the Chenab, and of Sophytes (Saubhuti) in the
neighbourhood of the Salt Range. We meet also with tribal confederacies,
such as in Alexander's time those of the Kathaioi on the upper, and of
the Malloi on the lower, Ravi.
~Invasion by Alexander, 327-325 B.C.~--The great Persian king, Darius, in
512 B.C. pushed out the boundary of his empire to the Indus, then
running in a more easternly course than to-day[4]. The army with which
Xerxes invaded Greece included a contingent of Indian bowmen[5]. When
Alexander overthrew the Persian Empire and started on the conquest of
India, the Indus was the boundary of the former. His remarkable campaign
lasted from April, 327 B.C., when he led an army of 50,000 or 60,000
Europeans across the Hindu Kush into the Kabul valley, to October, 325,
when he started from Sindh on his march to Persia through Makran. Having
cleared his left flank by a campaign in the hills of Buner and Swat, he
crossed the Indus sixteen miles above Attock near Torbela. The King of
Taxila, whose capital was near the Margalla pass on the north border of
the present Rawalpindi district, had prudently submitted as soon as the
Macedonian army appeared in the Kabul valley. From the Indus Alexander
marched to Taxila, and thence to the Jhelam (Hydaspes), forming a camp
near the site now occupied by the town of that name in the country of
Poros. The great army of the Indian king was drawn up to dispute the
passage probably not very far from the eastern end of the present
railway bridge. Favoured by night and a monsoon rain-storm--it was the
month of July, 326 B.C.--Alexander succeeded in crossing some miles
higher up into the Karri plain under the low hills of Gujrat. Here,
somewhere near the line now occupied by the upper Jhelam Canal, the
Greek soldiers gave the first example of a feat often repeated since,
the rout of a large and unwieldy Indian army by a small, but mobile and
well-led, European force. Having defeated Poros, Alexander crossed the
Chenab (Akesines), stormed Sangala, a fort of the Kathaioi on the upper
Ravi (Hydraotes) and advanced as far as the Bias (Hyphasis). But the
weary soldiers insisted that this should be the bourn of their eastward
march, and, after setting up twelve stone altars on the farther side,
Alexander in September, 326 B.C., reluctantly turned back. Before he
left the Panjab he had hard fighting with the Malloi on the lower Ravi,
and was nearly killed in the storm of one of their forts. Alexander
intended that his conquests should be permanent, and made careful
arrangements for their administration. But his death in June, 323 B.C.,
put an end to Greek rule in India. Chandra Gupta Maurya expelled the
Macedonian garrisons, and some twenty years later Seleukos Nicator had
to cede to him Afghanistan.
~Maurya Dominion and Empire of Asoka, 323-231 B.C.~--Chandra Gupta is
the Sandrakottos, to whose capital at Pataliputra (Patna) Seleukos sent
Megasthenes in 303 B.C. The Greek ambassador was a diligent and truthful
observer, and his notes give a picture of a civilized and complex system
of administration. If Chandra Gupta was the David, his grandson,
Asoka, was the Solomon of the first Hindu Empire. His long reign,
lasting from 273 to 231 B.C., was with one exception a period of
profound peace deliberately maintained by an emperor who, after his
conversion to the teaching of Gautama Buddha, thought war a sin.
Asoka strove to lead his people into the right path by means of pithy
abstracts of the moral law of his master graven on rocks and pillars. It
is curious to remember that this missionary king was peacefully ruling a
great empire in India during the twenty-four years of the struggle
between Rome and Carthage, which we call the first Punic War. Of the
four Viceroys who governed the outlying provinces of the empire one had
his headquarters at Taxila. One of the rock edicts is at Mansehra in
Hazara and another at Shahbazgarhi in Peshawar. From this time and for
many centuries the dominant religion in the Panjab was Buddhism, but the
religion of the villages may then have been as remote from the State
creed as it is to-day from orthodox Brahmanism.
~Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Parthian Rule.~--The Panjab slipped from the
feeble grasp of Asoka's successors, and for four centuries it looked
not to the Ganges, but to the Kabul and the Oxus rivers.
[Illustration: Fig. 57. Coin--obverse and reverse of Menander.]
Up to the middle of the first century of our era it was first under
Graeco-Bactrian, and later under Graeco-Parthian, rule directly, or
indirectly through local rulers with Greek names or Saka Satraps. The
Sakas, one of the central Asian shepherd hordes, were pushed out of
their pastures on the upper Jaxartes by another horde, the Yuechi.
Shadowy Hellenist Princes have left ~us~ only their names on coins; one
Menander, who ruled about 150 B.C., is an exception. He anticipated the
feats of later rulers of Kabul by a temporary conquest of North-Western
India, westwards to the Jamna and southwards to the sea.
~The Kushan Dynasty.~--The Yuechi in turn were driven southward to the
Oxus and the Kabul valley and under the Kushan dynasty established their
authority in the Panjab about the middle of the first century. The most
famous name is that of Kanishka, who wrested from China Kashgar,
Yarkand, and Khotan, and assembled ~a~ notable council of sages of the law
in Kashmir. His reign may be dated from 120 to 150 A.D. His capital was
at Purushapura (Peshawar), near which he built the famous relic tower of
Buddha, 400 feet high. Beside the tower was a large monastery still
renowned in the ninth and tenth centuries as a home of sacred learning.
The rule of Kushan kings in the Panjab lasted till the end of the first
quarter of the third century. To their time belong the Buddhist
sculptures found in the tracts near their Peshawar capital (see also
page 204).
~The Gupta Empire.~--Of the century preceding the establishment in 320
B.C. of the Gupta dynasty at Patna we know nothing. The Panjab probably
again fell under the sway of petty rajas and tribal confederacies,
though the Kushan rule was maintained in Peshawar till 465 A.D., when it
was finally blotted out by the White Huns. These savage invaders soon
after defeated Skanda Gupta, and from this blow the Gupta Empire never
recovered. At the height of its power in 400 A.D. under Chandra Gupta
II, known as Vikramaditya, who is probably the original of the
Bikramajit of Indian legends, it may have reached as far west as the
Chenab.
~The White Huns or Ephthalites.~--In the beginning of the sixth century
the White Hun, Mahirakula, ruled the Panjab from Sakala, the modern
Sialkot. He was a worshipper of Siva, and a deadly foe of the
Buddhist cult, and has been described as a monster of cruelty.
The short-lived dominion of the White Huns was destroyed by the Turks
and Persians about the year 565 A.D.
~Panjab in seventh century A.D.~--From various sources, one of the most
valuable being the Memoirs of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen Tsang,
who travelled in India from 630 to 644 A.D., we know something of
Northern India in the first half of the seventh century. Hiuen Tsang was
at Kanauj as a guest of a powerful king named Harsha, whose first
capital was at Thanesar, and who held a suzerainty over all the rajas
from the Brahmaputra to the Bias. West of that river the king of Kashmir
was also overlord of Taxila, Urasa, Parnotsa (Punch), Rajapuri (Rajauri)
and Sinhapura, which seems to have included the Salt Range. The Peshawar
valley was probably ruled by the Turki Shahiya kings of Kabul. The rest
of the Panjab was divided between a kingdom called by Hiuen Tsang
Tsekhia, whose capital was somewhere near Sialkot, and the important
kingdom of Sindh, in which the Indus valley as far north as the Salt
Range was included. Harsha died in 647 A.D. and his empire collapsed.
~Kashmir under Hindu Kings.~--For the next century China was at the height
of its power. It established a suzerainty over Kashmir, Udyana (Swat),
Yasin, and Chitral. The first was at this period a powerful Hindu
kingdom. Its annals, as recorded in Kalhana's Rajatarangini, bear
henceforward a real relation to history. In 733 A.D. King Muktapida
Lalitaditya received investiture from the Chinese Emperor. Seven years
later he defeated the King of Kanauj on the Ganges. A ruler who carried
his arms so far afield must have been very powerful in the Northern
Panjab. The remains of the wonderful Martand temple, which he built in
honour of the Sun God, are a standing memorial of his greatness. The
history of Kashmir under its Hindu kings for the next 400 years is for
the most part that of a wretched people ground down by cruel tyrants. A
notable exception was Avantidharman--855-883 A.D.--whose minister,
Suyya, carried out very useful drainage and irrigation works.
[Illustration: Fig. 58. Martand Temple.]
~The Panjab, 650-1000 A.D.~--We know little of Panjab history in the 340
years which elapsed between the death of Harsha and the beginning of the
Indian raids of the Sultans of Ghazni in 986-7 A.D. The conquest of the
kingdom of Sindh by the Arab general, Muhammad Kasim, occurred some
centuries earlier, in 712 A.D. Multan, the city of the Sun-worshippers,
was occupied, and part at least of the Indus valley submitted to the
youthful conqueror. He and his successors in Sindh were tolerant rulers.
No attempt was made to occupy the Central Panjab, and when the Turkish
Sultan, Sabaktagin, made his first raid into India in 986-7 A.D., his
opponent was a powerful raja named Jaipal, who ruled over a wide
territory extending from the Hakra to the frontier hills on the
north-west. His capital was at Bhatinda. Just about the time when the
rulers of Ghazni were laying the train which ended at Delhi and made it
the seat of a great Muhammadan Empire, that town was being founded in
993-4 A.D. by the Tunwar Rajputs, who then held sway in that
neighbourhood.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 4: See Sykes' _History of Persia_, pp. 179-180; also Herodotos
III. 94 and 98 and IV. 44.]
[Footnote 5: "The Indians clad with garments made of cotton had bows of
cane and arrows of cane tipped with iron."--Herodotos VII. 65.]
CHAPTER XVIII
HISTORY (_continued_). THE MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 1000-1764 A.D.
~The Ghaznevide Raids.~--In the tenth century the Turks were the
janissaries of the Abbaside Caliphs of Baghdad, and ambitious soldiers
of that race began to carve out kingdoms. One Alptagin set up for
himself at Ghazni, and was succeeded in 976 A.D. by his slave
Sabaktagin, who began the long series of Indian raids which stained with
blood the annals of the next half-century. His son, Mahmud of Ghazni, a
ruthless zealot and robber abroad, a patron of learning and literature
at home, added the Panjab to his dominions. In the first 26 years of the
eleventh century he made seventeen marauding excursions into India. In
the first his father's opponent, Jaipal, was beaten in a vain effort to
save Peshawar. Ten years later his successor, Anandpal, at the head of a
great army, again met the Turks in the Khaibar. The valour of the
Ghakkars had practically won the day, when Anandpal's elephant took
fright, and this accident turned victory into rout. In one or other of
the raids Multan and Lahore were occupied, and the temples of Kangra
(Nagarkot) and Thanesar plundered. In 1018 the Turkish army marched as
far east as Kanauj. The one permanent result of all these devastations
was the occupation of the Panjab. The Turks made Lahore the capital.
~Decline of Buddhism.~--The iconoclastic raids of Mahmud probably gave the
_coup de grace_ to Buddhism. Its golden age may be put at from 250 B.C.
to 200 A.D. Brahmanism gradually emerged from retirement and reappeared
at royal courts. It was quite ready to admit Buddha to its pantheon, and
by so doing it sapped the doctrine he had taught. The Chinese pilgrim,
Fahien, in the early part of the fifth century could still describe
Buddhism in the Panjab as "very flourishing," and he found numerous
monasteries. The religion seems however to have largely degenerated into
a childish veneration of relics.
~Conquest of Delhi.~--For a century and a quarter after the death of
Mahmud in 1030 A.D. his line maintained its sway over a much diminished
empire. In 1155 the Afghan chief of Ghor, Ala ud din, the "World-burner"
(Jahan-soz), levelled Ghazni with the ground. For a little longer the
Ghaznevide Turkish kings maintained themselves in Lahore. Between 1175
and 1186 Muhammad Ghori, who had set up a new dynasty at Ghazni,
conquered Multan, Peshawar, Sialkot, and Lahore, and put an end to the
line of Mahmud. The occupation of Sirhind brought into the field Prithvi
Raja, the Chauhan Rajput king of Delhi. In 1191 he routed Muhammad Ghori
at Naraina near Karnal. But next year the Afghan came back with a huge
host, and this time on the same battlefield fortune favoured him.
Prithvi Raja was taken and killed, and Muhammad's slave, Kutbuddin
Aibak, whom he left to represent him in India, soon occupied Delhi. In
1203 Muhammad Ghori had to flee for his life after a defeat near the
Oxus. The Ghakkars seized the chance and occupied Lahore. But the old
lion, though wounded, was still formidable. The Ghakkars were beaten,
and, it is said, converted. A year or two later they murdered their
conqueror in his tent near the Indus.
~Turkish and Afghans Sultans of Delhi.~--He had no son, and his strong
viceroy, Kutbuddin Aibak, became in 1206 the first of the 33 Muhammadan
kings, who in five successive dynasties ruled from Delhi a kingdom of
varying dimensions, till the last of them fell at Panipat in 1526, and
Babar, the first of the Moghals, became master of their red fort palace.
The blood-stained annals of these 320 years can only be lightly touched
on. Under vigorous rulers like the Turki Slave kings, Altamsh
(1210-1236) and Balban (1266-1287), a ferocious and masterful boor like
Ala ud din Khalji (1296-1316), or a ferocious but able man of culture
like Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), the local governors at Lahore and
Multan were content to be servants. In the frequent intervals during
which the royal authority was in the hands of sottish wastrels, the
chance of independence was no doubt seized.
~Mongol Invasions.~--In 1221 the Mongol cloud rose on the north-west
horizon. The cruelty of these camel-riding Tatars and the terror they
inspired may perhaps be measured by the appalling picture given of their
bestial appearance. In 1221, Chingiz Khan descended on the Indus at the
heels of the King of Khwarizm (Khiva), and drove him into Sindh. Then
there was a lull for twenty years, after which the Mongol war hordes
ruined and ravaged the Panjab for two generations. Two great Panjab
governors, Sher Khan under Balban and Tughlak under Ala ud din Khalji,
maintained a gallant struggle against these savages. In 1297 and 1303
the Mongols came to the gates of Delhi, but the city did not fall, and
soon after they ceased to harry Northern India. During these years the
misery of the common people must often have been extreme. When foreign
raids ceased for a time they were plundered by their own rulers. In the
Panjab the fate of the peasantry must have depended chiefly on the
character of the governor for the time being, and of the local
feudatories or _zamindars_, who were given the right to collect the
State's share of the produce on condition of keeping up bodies of armed
men for service when required.
~The Invasion of Timur.~--The long reign of Muhammad Tughlak's successor,
Firoz Shah (1351-1388), son of a Hindu Rajput princess of Dipalpur,
brought relief to all classes. Besides adopting a moderate fiscal
policy, he founded towns like Hissar and Fatehabad, dug canals from the
Jamna and the Sutlej, and carried out many other useful works. On his
death the realm fell into confusion. In 1398-99 another appalling
calamity fell upon it in the invasion of Timurlang (Tamerlane), Khan of
Samarkand. He entered India at the head of 90,000 horsemen, and marched
by Multan, Dipalpur, Sirsa, Kaithal, and Panipat to Delhi. What lust of
blood was to the Mongols, religious hatred was to Timur and his Turks.
Ten thousand Hindus were put to the sword at Bhatner and 100,000
prisoners were massacred before the victory at Delhi. For the three
days' sack of the royal city Timur was not personally responsible. Sated
with the blood of lakhs of infidels sent "to the fires of Hell" he
marched back through Kangra and Jammu to the Indus. Six years later the
House of Tughlak received a deadly wound when the Wazir, Ikbal Khan,
fell in battle with Khizr Khan, the governor of Multan.
~The later Dynasties.~--The Saiyyids, who were in power from 1414 to 1451,
only ruled a small territory round Delhi. The local governors and the
Hindu chiefs made themselves independent. Sikandar Lodi (1488-1518)
reduced them to some form of submission, but his successor, Ibrahim,
drove them into opposition by pushing authority further than his power
justified. An Afghan noble, Daulat Khan, rebelled in the Panjab. There
is always an ear at Kabul listening to the first sounds of discord and
weakness between Peshawar and Delhi. Babar, a descendant of Timur, ruled
a little kingdom there. In 1519 he advanced as far as Bhera. Five years
later his troops burned the Lahore _bazar_, and sacked Dipalpur. The
next winter saw Babar back again, and this time Delhi was his goal. On
the 21st of April, 1526, a great battle at Panipat again decided the
fate of India, and Babar entered Delhi in triumph.
~Akbar and his successors.~--He soon bequeathed his Indian kingdom to his
son Humayun, who lost it, but recovered it shortly before his death by
defeating Sikandar Sur at Sirhind. In 1556 Akbar succeeded at the age of
13, and in the same year Bahram Khan won for his master a great battle
at Panipat and seated the Moghals firmly on the throne. For the next
century and a half, till their power declined after the death of
Aurangzeb in 1707, Kabul and Delhi were under one rule, and the Panjab
was held in a strong grasp. When it was disturbed the cause was
rebellions of undutiful sons of the reigning Emperor, struggles between
rival heirs on the Emperor's death, or attempts to check the growing
power of the Sikh Gurus. The empire was divided into _subahs_, and the
area described in this book embraced _subahs_ Lahore and Multan, and
parts of _subahs_ Delhi and Kabul. Kashmir and the trans-Indus tract
were included in the last.
~The Sultans of Kashmir.~--The Hindu rule in Kashmir had broken down by
the middle of the twelfth century. A long line of Musalman Sultans
followed. Two notable names emerge in the end of the fourteenth and the
first half of the fifteenth century, Sikandar, the "Idol-breaker," who
destroyed most of the Hindu temples and converted his people to Islam,
and his wise and tolerant successor, Zain-ul-abidin. Akbar conquered
Kashmir in 1587.
~Moghal Royal Progresses to Kashmir.~--His successors often moved from
Delhi by Lahore, Bhimbar, and the Pir Panjal route to the Happy Valley
in order to escape the summer heats. Bernier has given us a graphic
account of Aurangzeb's move to the hills in 1665. On that occasion his
total following was estimated to amount to 300,000 or 400,000 persons,
and the journey from Delhi to Lahore occupied two months. The burden
royal progresses on this scale must have imposed on the country is
inconceivable. Jahangir died in his beloved Kashmir. He planted the road
from Delhi to Lahore with trees, set up as milestones the _kos minars_,
some of which are still standing, and built fine _sarais_ at various
places.
~Prosperity of Lahore under Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan.~--The reigns
of Akbar and of his son and grandson were the heyday of Lahore. It was
the halfway house between Delhi and Kashmir, and between Agra and Kabul.
The Moghal Court was often there. Akbar made the city his headquarters
from 1584 to 1598. Jahangir was buried and Shahjahan was born at Lahore.
The mausoleum of the former is at Shahdara, a mile or two from the city.
Shahjahan made the Shalimar garden, and Ali Mardan Khan's Canal, the
predecessor of our own Upper Bari Doab Canal, was partly designed to
water it. Lahore retained its importance under Aurangzeb, till he became
enmeshed in the endless Deccan wars, and his successor, Bahadur Shah,
died there in 1712.
~Baba Nanak, the first Guru.~--According to Sikh legend Babar in one of
his invasions had among his prisoners their first Guru, Baba Nanak, and
tried to make him a Musalman. Nanak was born in 1469 at Talwandi, now
known as Nankana Sahib, 30 miles to the south-west of Lahore, and died
twelve years after Babar's victory at Panipat. He journeyed all over
India, and, if legend speaks true, even visited Mecca. His propaganda
was a peaceful one. A man of the people himself, he had a message to
deliver to a peasantry naturally impatient of the shackles of orthodox
Hinduism. Sikhism is the most important of all the later dissents from
Brahmanism, which represent revolts against idolatry, priestly
domination, and the bondage of caste and ritual. These things Nanak
unhesitatingly condemned, and in the opening lines of his Japji, the
morning service which every true Sikh must know by heart, he asserted in
sublime language the unity of God.
[Illustration: Fig. 59. Baba Nanak and the Musician Mardana.]
~The Gurus between Nanak and Govind.~--The first three successors of Nanak
led the quiet lives of great eastern saints. They managed to keep on
good terms with the Emperor and generally also with his local
representatives. The fifth Guru, Arjan (1581-1606), began the welding of
the Sikhs into a body fit to play a part in secular politics. He
compiled their sacred book, known as the _Granth Sahib_, and made
Amritsar the permanent centre of their faith. The tenets of these early
Gurus chimed in with the liberal sentiments of Akbar, and he treated
them kindly. Arjan was accused of helping Khusru, Jahangir's rebellious
son, and is alleged to have died after suffering cruel tortures.
Hitherto there had been little ill-will between monotheistic Sikhs and
Muhammadans. Henceforth there was ever-increasing enmity. The peasant
converts to the new creed had many scores against Turk officials to pay
off, while the new leader Hargovind (1606-1645), had the motive of
revenge. He was a Guru of a new type, a lover of horses and hawks, and a
man of war. He kept up a bodyguard, and, when danger threatened, armed
followers flocked to his standard. The easy-going Jahangir (1605-1627)
on the whole treated him well. Shahjahan (1627-1659) was more strict or
less prudent, and during his reign there were several collisions between
the imperial troops and the Guru's followers. Hargovind was succeeded
by his grandson, Har Rai (1645-1661). The new Guru was a man of peace.
Har Rai died in 1661, having nominated his younger son, Harkrishn, a
child of six, as his successor. His brother, Ram Rai, disputed his
claim, but Aurangzeb confirmed Harkrishn's appointment. He died of small
pox in 1664 and was succeeded by his uncle, Teg Bahadur (1664-1675),
whose chief titles to fame are his execution in 1675, his prophecy of
the coming of the English, and the fact that he was the father of the
great tenth Guru, Govind. It is said that when in prison at Delhi he
gazed southwards one day in the direction of the Emperor's _zanana_.
Charged with this impropriety, he replied: "I was looking in the
direction of the Europeans, who are coming to tear down thy _pardas_ and
destroy thine empire."
[Illustration: Fig. 60. Guru Govind Singh.]
~Guru Govind Singh.~--When Govind (1675-1708) succeeded his father,
Aurangzeb had already started on the course of persecution which fatally
weakened the pillars of Turkish rule. Govind grew up with a rooted
hatred of the Turks, and a determination to weld his followers into a
league of fighting men or _Khalsa_ (Ar. _khalis_ = pure), admission into
which was by the _pahul_, a form of military baptism. Sikhs were
henceforth to be _Singhs_ (lions). They were forbidden to smoke, and
enjoined to wear the five k's, _kes_, _kangha_, _kripan_, _kachh_, and
_kara_ (uncut hair, comb, sword, short drawers, and steel bracelet). He
established himself at Anandpur beyond the Hoshyarpur Siwaliks. Much of
his life was spent in struggles with his neighbours, the Rajput Hill
Rajas, backed from time to time by detachments of imperial troops from
Sirhind. In 1705 two of his sons were killed fighting and two young
grandsons were executed at Sirhind. He himself took refuge to the south
of the Sutlej, but finally decided to obey a summons from Aurangzeb, and
was on the way to the Deccan when the old Emperor died. The Guru took
up his residence on the banks of the Godavari, and died there in 1708.
~Banda.~--Before his death he had converted the Hindu ascetic Banda, and
sent him forth on a mission of revenge. Banda defeated and slew the
governor of Sirhind, Wazir Khan, and sacked the town. Doubtless he
dreamed of making himself Guru. But he was really little more than a
condottiere, and his orthodoxy was suspect. He was defeated and captured
in 1715 at Gurdaspur. Many of his followers were executed and he himself
was tortured to death at Delhi, where the members of an English mission
saw a ghastly procession of Sikh prisoners with 2000 heads carried on
poles. The blow was severe, and for a generation little was heard of the
Sikhs.
~Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah.~--The central power was weak, and
a new era of invasions from the west began. Nadir Shah, the Turkman
shepherd, who had made himself master of Persia, advanced through the
Panjab. Zakaria Khan, the governor of Lahore, submitted and the town was
saved from sack. A victory at Karnal left the road to Delhi open, and in
March, 1738, the Persians occupied the capital. A shot fired at Nadir
Shah in the Chandni Chauk led to the nine hours' massacre, when the
Dariba ran with blood, and 100,000 citizens are said to have perished.
The Persians retired laden with booty, including the peacock throne and
the Kohinur diamond. The Sikhs harassed detachments of the army on its
homeward march. Nadir Shah was murdered nine years later, and his power
passed to the Afghan leader, the Durani Ahmad Shah.
Between 1748 and 1767 this remarkable man, who could conquer but could
not keep, invaded India eight times. Lahore was occupied in 1748, but at
Sirhind the skill of Mir Mannu, called Muin ul Mulk, gave the advantage
to the Moghals. Ahmad Shah retreated, and Muin ul Mulk was rewarded
with the governorship of the Panjab. He was soon forced to cede to the
Afghan the revenue of four districts. His failure to fulfil his compact
led to a third invasion in 1752, and Muin ul Mulk, after a gallant
defence of Lahore, had to submit. In 1755-56 Ahmad Shah plundered Delhi
and then retired, leaving his son, Timur, to represent him at Lahore.
Meanwhile the Sikhs had been gathering strength. Then, as now, they
formed only a fraction of the population. But they were united by a
strong hatred of Muhammadan rule, and in the disorganized state of the
country even the loose organization described below made them
formidable. Owing to the weakness of the government the Panjab became
dotted over with forts, built by local chiefs, who undoubtedly lived
largely by plunder. The spiritual organization under a Guru being gone,
there gradually grew up a political and military organization into
twelve _misls_, in which "a number of chiefs agreed, after a somewhat
democratic and equal fashion, to fight under the general orders of some
powerful leader" against the hated Muhammadans. The _misls_ often fought
with one another for a change. In the third quarter of the eighteenth
century _Sardar_ Jassa Singh of Kapurthala, head of the Ahluwalia
_misl_, was the leading man among the Sikhs. Timur having defiled the
tank at Amritsar, Jassa Singh avenged the insult by occupying Lahore in
1756, and the Afghan prince withdrew across the Indus. Adina Beg, the
governor of the Jalandhar Doab, called in the Mahrattas, who drove the
Sikhs out in 1758. Ahmad Shah's fifth invasion in 1761 was rendered
memorable by his great victory over the Mahratta confederacy at Panipat.
When he returned to Kabul, the Sikhs besieged his governor, Zin Khan, in
Sirhind. Next year Ahmad Shah returned, and repaid their audacity by a
crushing defeat near Barnala.
They soon rallied, and, in 1763, under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Raja
Ala Singh of Patiala razed Sirhind to the ground. After the sack the
Sikh horsemen rode over the plains between Sirhind and Karnal, each man
claiming for his own any village into which in passing he had thrown
some portion of his garments. This was the origin of the numerous petty
chiefships and confederacies of horsemen, which, along with the Phulkian
States, the British Government took under its protection in 1808. In
1764 the chiefs of the Bhangi _misl_ occupied Lahore.
CHAPTER XIX
HISTORY (_continued_). THE SIKH PERIOD, 1764-1849 A.D.
~Rise of Ranjit Singh.~--The Bhangis held Lahore with brief intervals for
25 years. In 1799, Ranjit Singh, basing his claim on a grant from Shah
Zaman, the grandson of Ahmad Shah, drove them out, and inaugurated the
remarkable career which ended with his death in 1839. When he took
Lahore the future Maharaja was only nineteen years of age. He was the
head of the Sukarchakia _misl_, which had its headquarters at
Gujranwala. Mean in appearance, his face marked and one eye closed by
the ravages of smallpox, he was the one man of genius the Jat tribe has
produced. A splendid horseman, a bold leader, a cool thinker untroubled
with scruples, an unerring judge of character, he was bound to rise in
such times. He set himself to put down every Sikh rival and to profit by
the waning of the Durani power to make himself master of their
possessions in the Panjab. Pluck, patience, and guile broke down all
opposition among the Manjha Sikhs. The Sikh chiefs to the south of the
Sutlej were only saved from the same fate by throwing themselves in 1808
on the protection of the English, who six years earlier had occupied
Delhi, and by taking under their protection the blind old Emperor, Shah
Alam, had virtually proclaimed themselves the paramount power in India.
For 44 years he had been only a piece in the game played by Mahrattas,
Rohillas, and the English in alliance with the Nawab Wazir of Oudh.
[Illustration: Fig. 61. Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Maharaja Dalip
Singh._)]
~British supremacy established in India.~--In the first years of the
nineteenth century the Marquess of Wellesley had made up his mind that
the time was ripe to grasp supreme power in India. The motive was
largely self-preservation. India was included in Napoleon's vast plans
for the overthrow of England, and Sindhia, with his army trained in
European methods of warfare by French officers, seemed a likely
confederate. Colonel Arthur Wellesley's hard-won battle at Assaye in
September, 1803, and Lord Lake's victories on the Hindan and at Laswari
in the same year, decided the fate of India. Delhi was occupied, and
Daulat Rao Sindhia ceded to the company territory reaching from Fazilka
on the Sutlej to Delhi on the Jamna, and extending along that river
northwards to Karnal and southwards to Mewat. Fazilka and a large part
of Hissar then formed a wild desert tract called Bhattiana, over which
no effective control was exercised till 1818. In 1832 "the Delhi
territory" became part of the North-West Provinces, from which it was
transferred to the Panjab after the Mutiny.
~Relations of Ranjit Singh with English.~--In December, 1808, Ranjit Singh
was warned that by the issue of the war with Sindhia the Cis-Sutlej
chiefs had come under British protection. The Maharaja was within an ace
of declaring war, or let the world think so, but his statesmanlike
instincts got the better of mortified ambition, and in April, 1809, he
signed a treaty pledging himself to make no conquests south and east of
the Sutlej. The compact so reluctantly made was faithfully observed. In
1815, as the result of war with the Gurkhas, the Rajput hill states
lying to the south of the Sutlej came under British protection.
~Extension of Sikh Kingdom in Panjab.~--As early as 1806, when he reduced
Jhang, Ranjit Singh began his encroachments on the possessions of the
Duranis in the Panjab. Next year, and again in 1810 and 1816, Multan was
attacked, but the strong fort was not taken till 1818, when the old
Nawab, Muzaffar Khan, and five of his sons, fell fighting at the gate.
Kashmir was first attacked in 1811 and finally annexed in 1819. Called
in by the great Katoch Raja of Kangra, Sansar Chand, in 1809, to help
him against the Gurkhas, Ranjit Singh duped both parties, and became
master of the famous fort. Many years later he annexed the whole of the
Kangra hill states. By 1820 the Maharaja was supreme from the Sutlej to
the Indus, though his hold on Hazara was weak. Peshawar became tributary
in 1823, but it was kept in subjection with much difficulty. Across the
Indus the position of the Sikhs was always precarious, and revenue was
only paid when an armed force could be sent to collect it. As late as
1837 the great Sikh leader, Hari Singh Nalwa, fell fighting with the
Afghans at Jamrud. The Barakzai, Dost Muhammad, had been the ruler of
Kabul since 1826. In 1838, when the English launched their ill-starred
expedition to restore Shah Shuja to his throne, Ranjit Singh did not
refuse his help in the passage through the Panjab. But he was worn out
by toils and excesses, and next year the weary lion of the Panjab died.
He had known how to use men. He employed Jat blades and Brahman and
Muhammadan brains. Khatris put both at his service. The best of his
local governors was Diwan Sawan Mal, who ruled the South-West Panjab
with much profit to himself and to the people. After 1820 the three
Jammu brothers, Rajas Dhian Singh, Suchet Singh, and Gulab Singh, had
great power.
~Successors of Ranjit Singh.~--From 1839 till 1846 an orgy of bloodshed
and intrigue went on in Lahore. Kharak Singh, the Maharaja's son, died
in 1840, and on the same day occurred the death of his son Nao Nihal
Singh, compassed probably by the Jammu Rajas. Sher Singh, and then the
child, Dalip Singh, succeeded. In September, 1843, Maharaja Sher Singh,
his son Partab Singh, and Raja Dhian Singh were shot by Ajit Singh and
Lehna Singh of the great Sindhanwalia house. The death of Dhian Singh
was avenged by his son, Hira Singh, who proclaimed Dalip Singh as
Maharaja and made himself chief minister. When he in turn was killed
Rani Jindan, the mother of Dalip Singh, her brother Jowahir Singh, and
her favourite, Lal Singh, took the reins.
[Illustration: Fig. 62. Maharaja Kharak Singh.]
[Illustration: Fig. 63. Nao Nihal Singh.]
[Illustration: Fig. 64. Maharaja Sher Singh.
(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Maharaja Dalip
Singh._)]
~The First Sikh War and its results.~--In 1845 these intriguers, fearing
the _Khalsa_ army which they could not control, yielded to its cry to be
led across the Sutlej in the hope that its strength would be broken in
its conflict with the Company's forces. The valour displayed by the Sikh
soldiery on the fields of Mudki, Ferozeshah (Pherushahr), and Sobraon
was rendered useless by the treachery of its rulers, and Lahore was
occupied in February, 1846. By the treaty signed on 9th March, 1846, the
Maharaja ceded the territories in the plains between the Sutlej and
Bias, and in the hills between the Bias and the Indus. Kashmir and
Hazara were made over by the Company to Raja Gulab Singh for a payment
of 75 lakhs, but next year he induced the Lahore Darbar to take over
Hazara and give him Jammu in exchange. After Raja Lal Singh had been
banished for instigating Shekh Imam ud din to resist the occupation of
Kashmir by Gulab Singh, an agreement was executed, in December, 1846,
between the Government and the chief Sikh _Sardars_ by which a Council
of Regency was appointed to be controlled by a British Resident at
Lahore. The office was given to Henry Lawrence.
~The Second Sikh War.~--These arrangements were destined to be
short-lived. Diwan Sawan Mal's son, Mulraj, mismanaged Multan and was
ordered to resign. In April, 1848, two English officers sent to instal
his Sikh successor were murdered. Herbert Edwardes, with the help of
Muhammadan tribesmen and Bahawalpur troops, shut up Mulraj in Multan,
but the fort was too strong for the first British regular force, which
arrived in August, and it did not fall till January, 1849. During that
winter a formidable Sikh revolt against English domination broke out.
Its leader was _Sardar_ Chatar Singh, Governor of Hazara. The troops
sent by the _Darbar_ to Multan under Chatar Singh's son, Sher Singh,
marched northwards in September to join their co-religionists.
On the 13th of January, 1849, Lord Gough fought a very hardly contested
battle at Chilianwala. If this was but a doubtful victory, that won six
weeks later at Gujrat was decisive. On 12th March, 1849, the soldiers of
the _Khalsa_ in proud dejection laid down their weapons at the feet of
the victor, and dispersed to their homes.
[Illustration: Fig. 65. Zamzama Gun[6].]
~Annexation.~--The cause they represented was in no sense a national one.
The Sikhs were a small minority of the population, the bulk of the
people being Muhammadans, to whom the English came as deliverers. On the
30th of March, 1849, the proclamation annexing the Panjab was read at
Lahore.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 6: This gun, known to the readers of _Kim_, stands on the
Lahore Mall. Whoever possesses it is supposed to be ruler of the
Panjab.]
CHAPTER XX
HISTORY (_continued_). THE BRITISH PERIOD, 1849-1913
~Administrative Arrangements in Panjab.~--Lord Dalhousie put the
government of the province under a Board of Administration consisting of
the two Lawrences, Henry and John, and Charles Mansel. The Board was
abolished in 1853 and its powers vested in a Chief Commissioner. A
Revenue or Financial Commissioner and a Judicial Commissioner were his
principal subordinates. John Lawrence, the first and only Chief
Commissioner of the Panjab, became its first Lieutenant-Governor on the
1st of January, 1859. The raising of the Panjab to the full rank of an
Indian province was the fitting reward of the great part which its
people and its officers, with their cool-headed and determined chief,
had played in the suppression of the Mutiny. The overthrow of the
_Khalsa_ left the contending parties with the respect which strong men
feel for each other; the services of the Sikhs in 1857 healed their
wounded pride and removed all soreness.
[Illustration: Fig. 66. Sir John Lawrence.]
~Administration, 1849-1859.~--When John Lawrence laid down his office in
the end of February, 1859, ten years of work by himself and the able
officers drafted by Lord Dalhousie into the new province had established
order on a solid foundation. A strong administration suited to a manly
and headstrong people had been organised. In the greater part of the
province rights in land had been determined and recorded. The principle
of a moderate assessment of the land revenue had been laid down and
partially carried out in practice. The policy of canal and railway
development, which was to have so great a future in the Panjab, had been
definitely started. The province had been divided into nine divisions
containing 33 districts. The Divisional Commissioners were
superintendents of revenue and police with power to try the gravest
criminal offences and to hear appeals in civil cases. The Deputy
Commissioner of districts had large civil, criminal, and fiscal powers.
A simple criminal and civil code was enforced. The peace of the frontier
was secured by a chain of fortified outposts watching the outlets from
the hills, behind which were the cantonments at the headquarters of the
districts linked together by a military road. The posts and the
cantonments except Peshawar were garrisoned by the Frontier Force, a
splendid body of troops consisting ultimately of seven infantry and
five cavalry regiments, with some mule batteries. This force was till
1885 subject to the orders of the Lieutenant Governor. It never wanted
work, for before the Mutiny troops had to be employed seventeen times
against the independent tribesmen. East of the Indus order was secured
by the disarmament of the people, the maintenance, in addition to civil
police, of a strong body of military police, and the construction of
good roads. Just before Lawrence left the construction of the
Amritsar-Multan railway was begun, and a few weeks after his departure
the Upper Bari Doab Canal was opened.
[Illustration: Fig. 67. John Nicolson's Monument at Delhi.]
[Illustration: Fig. 68. Sir Robert Montgomery.]
~Administration, 1859-1870.~--The next eleven years occupied by the
administrations of Sir Robert Montgomery and Sir Donald Macleod were a
quiet time in which results already achieved were consolidated. The
Penal Code was extended to the Panjab in 1862, and a Chief Court with a
modest establishment of two judges in 1865 took the place of the
Judicial Commissioner. In the same year a Settlement Commissioner was
appointed to help the Financial Commissioner in the control of land
revenue settlements. Two severe famines marked the beginning and the
close of this period. Omitting the usual little frontier excitements, it
is necessary to mention the troublesome Ambela campaign in 1863 in the
country north of Peshawar, which had for its object the breaking up of
the power of a nest of Hindustani fanatics, and the Black Mountain
expedition, in 1868, on the Hazara border, in which no fewer than 15,000
men were employed. Sir Henry Durand, who succeeded Sir Donald Macleod,
after seven months of office lost his life by an accident in the
beginning of 1871.
~Administration, 1871-1882.~--The next eleven years divided between the
administrations of Sir Henry Davies (1871-1877) and Sir Robert Egerton
(1877-1882) produced more striking events. In 1872 a small body of
fanatics belonging to a Sikh sect known as Kukas or Shouters marched
from the Ludhiana district and attacked the headquarters of the little
Muhammadan State of Malerkotla. They were repulsed and 68 men
surrendered to the Patiala authorities. The Deputy Commissioner of
Ludhiana blew 49 of them from the guns, and the rest were executed after
summary trial by the Commissioner. Such strong measures were not
approved by the Government, but it must be remembered that these madmen
had killed ten and wounded seventeen men, and that their lives were
justly forfeit. On the 1st of January, 1877, Queen Victoria's
assumption of the title of Empress of India (_Kaisar-i-Hind_) was
announced at a great _Darbar_ at Delhi. In 1877 Kashmir, hitherto
controlled by the Lieutenant-Governor, was put directly under the
Government of India. The same year and the next the province was tried
by famine, and in 1878-80 it was the base from which our armies marched
on Kabul and Kandahar, while its resources in camels were strained to
supply transport. Apart from this its interest in the war was very great
because it is the chief recruiting ground of the Indian army and its
chiefs sent contingents to help their suzerain. The first stage of the
war was closed by the treaty of Gandamak in May, 1879, by which Yakub
Khan surrendered any rights he possessed over Khaibar and the Kurram as
far as Shutargardan.
[Illustration: Fig. 69. Panjab Camels--Lahore.]
[Illustration: Fig. 70. Sir Charles Aitchison.]
~Administration, 1882-1892.~--During the Lieutenant-Governorships of Sir
Charles Aitchison (1882-1887) and Sir James Lyall (1887-1892) there was
little trouble on the western frontier. In 1891 the need had arisen of
making our power felt up to the Pamirs. The setting up of a British
agency at Gilgit was opposed in 1891 by the fighting men of Hunza and
Nagar. Colonel Durand advanced rapidly with a small force and when a
determined assault reduced the strong fort of Nilt, trouble was at an
end once and for all. Within the Panjab the period was one of quiet
development. The Sirhind Canal was opened in 1882, and the weir at
Khanki for the supply of the Lower Chenab Canal was finished in 1892.
New railways were constructed. Lord Ripon's policy of Local
Self-government found a strong supporter in Sir Charles Aitchison, and
Acts were passed dealing with the constitution and powers of municipal
committees and district boards. In 1884 and 1885 a large measure of
reorganization was carried out. A separate staff of divisional,
district, and subordinate civil judges was appointed. The divisional
judges were also sessions judges. The ten commissioners were reduced to
six, and five of them were relieved of all criminal work by the sessions
judges. The Deputy Commissioner henceforth was a Revenue Collector and
District Magistrate with large powers in criminal cases. The revenue
administration was at the same time being improved by the reforms
embodied in the Panjab Land Revenue and Tenancy Acts passed at the
beginning of Sir James Lyall's administration.
~Administration, 1892-1902.~--The next two administrations, those of Sir
Dennis Fitzpatrick (1892-97) and Sir Mackworth Young (1897-1902) were
crowded with important events. Throughout the period the colonization of
the vast area of waste commanded by the Lower Chenab Canal was carried
out, and the Lower Jhelam Canal was formally opened six months before
Sir Mackworth Young left. The province suffered from famine in 1896-97
and again in 1899-1900. In October, 1897, a worse enemy appeared in the
shape of plague, but its ravages were not very formidable till the end
of the period. The Panjab was given a small nominated Legislative
Council in 1897, which speedily proved itself a valuable instrument for
dealing with much-needed provincial legislation. But the most important
Panjab Act of the period, XIII of 1900, dealing with Land Alienation was
passed by the Viceroy's Legislative Council. In 1901 a Political Agent
was appointed as the intermediary between the Panjab Government and the
Phulkian States. On the frontier the conclusion of the Durand Agreement
in 1893 might well have raised hopes of quiet times. But the reality was
otherwise. The establishment of a British officer at Wana to exercise
control over Southern Waziristan in 1894 was forcibly resisted by the
Mahsud Wazirs, and an expedition had to be sent into their country. The
Mehtar or Chief of Chitral, who was in receipt of a subsidy from the
British Government, died in 1892. A period of great confusion followed
fomented by the ambitions of Umra Khan of Jandol. Finally we recognised
as Mehtar the eldest son, who had come uppermost in the struggle, and
sent an English officer as British Agent to Chitral. Umra Khan got our
protege murdered, and besieged the Agent in the Chitral fort. He
withdrew however on the approach of a small force from Gilgit.
Shuja-ul-Mulk was recognised as Mehtar. This little trouble occurred in
1895. Two years later a storm-cloud suddenly burst over the frontier,
such as we had never before experienced. It spread rapidly from the
Tochi to Swat, tribe after tribe rising and attacking our posts. It is
impossible to tell here the story of the military measures taken against
the different offending tribes. The most important was the campaign in
Tirah against the Orakzais and Afridis, in which 30,000 men were engaged
for six months. In 1900 attacks on the peace of the border by the Mahsud
Wazirs had to be punished by a blockade, and in the cold weather of
1901-2 small columns harried the hill country to enforce their
submission. By this time the connection of the Panjab Government with
frontier affairs, which had gradually come to involve responsibility
with little real power, had ceased. On the 25th of October, 1901, the
North-West Frontier Province was constituted and Colonel (afterwards Sir
Harold) Deane became its first Chief Commissioner, an office which he
held till 1908, when he was succeeded by Major (now Sir George) Roos
Keppel.
~Administration, 1902-1913.~--The last eleven years have embraced the
Lieutenant Governorship of Sir Charles Rivaz (1902-1907), the too brief
administration of Sir Denzil Ibbetson (1907-1908), and that of Sir Louis
Dane (1908-1913). Throughout the period plague has been a disturbing
factor, preventing entirely the growth of population which the rapid
development of the agricultural resources of the province would
otherwise have secured. It was among the causes stimulating the unrest
which came to a head in 1907. A terrible earthquake occurred in 1905.
Its centre was in Kangra, where 20,000 persons perished under the ruins
of their houses. The colonization of the Crown waste on the Lower Jhelam
Canal was nearly finished during Sir Charles Rivaz's administration.
Before he left the Triple Canal Project, now approaching completion, had
been undertaken. Other measures of importance to the rural population
were the passing of the Co-operative Credit Societies' Act in 1903, and
the organization in 1905 of a provincial Agricultural Department. The
seditious movement which troubled Bengal had its echo in some parts of
the Panjab in the end of 1906 and the spring of 1907. A bill dealing
with the rights and obligations of the Crown tenants in the new Canal
Colonies was at the time before the Local Legislature. Excitement
fomented from outside spread among the prosperous colonists on the Lower
Chenab Canal. There was a disturbance in Lahore in connection with the
trial of a newspaper editor, the ringleaders being students. When Sir
Denzil Ibbetson took the reins into his strong hands in March, 1907, the
position was somewhat critical. The disturbance at Lahore was followed
by a riot at Rawalpindi. The two leading agitators were deported, a
measure which was amply justified by their reckless actions and which
had an immediate effect. Lord Minto decided to withhold his assent from
the Colony Bill, and it has recently been replaced by a measure which
has met with general acceptance. When Sir Denzil Ibbetson took office he
was already suffering from a mortal disease. In the following January he
gave up the unequal struggle, and shortly afterwards died. Sir Louis
Dane became Lieutenant Governor in May, 1908. A striking feature of his
administration was the growth of co-operative credit societies or
village banks. At the Coronation _Darbar_ on 12th December, 1911, the
King-Emperor announced the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi. As
a necessary consequence the city and its suburbs were severed from the
province, with which they had been connected for 55 years. In 1913 Sir
Louis Dane was succeeded by Sir Michael O'Dwyer.
[Illustration: Fig. 71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson.]
[Illustration: Fig. 72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer.]
CHAPTER XXI
ARCHAEOLOGY AND COINS
[Illustration: Fig. 73. Group of Chamba Temples.]
~Hindu and Buddhist Remains.~--The scholar who ended his study of Indian
history with the close of the first millennium of the Christian era
would expect to find a fruitful field for the study of ancient monuments
of the Hindu faith in the plains of the Panjab. He would look for a
great temple of the Sun God at Multan, and at places like Lahore and
Kangra, Thanesar and Pihowa, for shrines rich with graven work outside
and with treasures of gold and precious stones within. But he would look
in vain. The Muhammadan invaders of the five centuries which elapsed
between Mahmud of Ghazni and the Moghal Babar were above all things
idol-breakers, and their path was marked by the destruction and
spoliation of temples. Even those invaders who remained as conquerors
deemed it a pious work to build their mosques with the stones of ruined
fanes. The transformation, as in the case of the great Kuwwat ul Islam
mosque beside the Kutb Minar, did not always involve the complete
obliteration of idolatrous emblems. Kangra was not too remote to be
reached by invading armies, and the visitor to Nurpur on the road from
Pathankot to Dharmsala can realize how magnificent some of the old Hindu
buildings were, and how utterly they were destroyed. The smaller
buildings to be found in the remoter parts of the hills escaped, and
there are characteristic groups of stone temples at Chamba and still
older shrines dating from the eighth century at Barmaur and Chitradi in
the same state. The ruins of the great temple of the Sun, built by
Lalitaditya in the same period, at Martand[7] near Islamabad in the
Kashmir State are very striking. The smaller, but far better preserved,
temple at Payer is probably of much later date. Round the pool of Katas,
one of Siva's eyes, a great place of Hindu pilgrimage in the Salt
Range, there is little or nothing of antiquarian value, but there are
interesting remains at Malot in the same neighbourhood. It is possible
that when the mounds that mark the sites of ancient villages come to be
excavated valuable relics of the Hindu period will be brought to light.
The forces of nature or the violence of man have wiped out all traces of
the numerous Buddhist monasteries which the Chinese pilgrims found in
the Panjab. Inscriptions of Asoka? graven on rocks survive at
Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in the North-West Frontier Province. Two
pillars with inscriptions of the Missionary Emperor stand at Delhi. They
were brought from Topra near the Jamna in Ambala and from Meerut by
Firoz Shah. The traveller by train from Jhelam to Rawalpindi can see to
the west of the line at Mankiala a great _stupa_ raised to celebrate the
self-sacrifice of the Bodhisattva who gave his life to feed a starving
tigress. There is a ruined _stupa_ at Sui Vihar in the Bahawalpur State.
The Chinese pilgrims described the largest of Indian _stupas_ built by
Kanishka near Peshawar to enshrine precious relics of Gautama Buddha and
a great monastery beside it. Recent excavations have proved the truth
of the conjecture that the two mounds at Shahji ki dheri covered the
remains of these buildings, and the six-sided crystal reliquary
containing three small fragments of bone has after long centuries been
disinterred and is now in the great pagoda at Rangoon. In the Lahore
museum there is a rich collection of the sculptures recovered from the
Peshawar Valley, the ancient Gandhara. They exhibit strong traces of
Greek influence. The best age of Gandhara sculpture was probably over
before the reign of Kanishka. The site of the famous town of Taxila is
now a protected area, and excavation there may yield a rich reward.
[Illustration: Fig. 74. Payer Temple.]
[Illustration: Fig. 75. Reliquary.]
[Illustration: Fig. 76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islam Mosque.]
~Muhammadan Architecture.~--The Muhammadan architecture of North-Western
India may be divided into three periods:
(_a_) The Pathan 1191-1320
(_b_) The Tughlak 1320-1556
(_c_) The Moghal 1556-1753
[Illustration: Fig. 77. Kutb Minar.]
In the Pathan period the royal builders drew their inspiration from
Ghazni, but their work was also much affected by Hindu influences for
two reasons. They used the materials of Hindu temples in constructing
their mosques and they employed masons imbued with the traditions of
Hindu art. The best specimens of this period are to be found in the
group of buildings in Old Delhi or _Kila' Rai Pithora_, close to
Mahrauli and eleven miles to the south of the present city. These
buildings are the magnificent _Kuwwat ul Islam_ (Might of Islam) Mosque
(1191-1225), with its splendid tower, the _Kutb Minar_ (1200-1220), from
which the _mu'azzin_ called the faithful to prayer, the tomb of the
Emperor Altamsh (1238), and the great gateway built in 1310 by Ala ud
din Khalji. In the second period, named after the house that occupied
the imperial throne when it began, all traces of Hindu influence have
vanished, and the buildings display the austere and massive grandeur
suited to the faith of the desert prophet unalloyed by foreign elements.
This style in its beginning is best seen in the cyclopean ruins of
Tughlakabad and the tomb of the Emperor Tughlak Shah, and in some
mosques in and near Delhi. Its latest phase is represented by Sher
Shah's mosque in the Old Fort or _Purana Kila'_. To some the simple
grandeur of this style will appeal more strongly than the splendid, but
at times almost effeminate, beauty of the third period. Noted examples
of Moghal architecture in the Panjab are to be found in Shahjahari's red
fort palace and _Jama' Masjid_ at New Delhi or Shahjahanabad,
Humayun's tomb on the road from Delhi to Mahrauli, the fort palace, the
Badshahi and Wazir Khan's mosques, at Lahore, and Jahangir's mausoleum
at Shahdara. A very late building in this style is the tomb of Nawab
Safdar Jang (1753) near Delhi. A further account of some of the most
famous Muhammadan buildings will be found in the paragraphs devoted to
the chief cities of the province. The architecture of the British period
scarcely deserves notice.
[Illustration: Fig. 78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Shah.]
[Illustration: Fig. 79. Jama Masjid, Delhi.]
[Illustration: Fig. 80. Tomb of Emperor Humayun.]
[Illustration: Fig. 81. Badshahi Mosque, Lahore.]
~Coins.~--Among the most interesting of the archaeological remains are the
coins which are found in great abundance on the frontier and all over
the Panjab. These take us back through the centuries to times before
the invasion of India by Alexander, and for the obscure period
intervening between the Greek occupation of the Frontier and the
Muhammadan conquest, they are our main source of history. The most
ancient of the Indian monetary issues are the so-called punch-marked
coins, some of which were undoubtedly in existence before the Greek
invasion. Alexander himself left no permanent traces of his progress
through the Panjab and Sindh, but about the year 200 B.C., Greeks from
Bactria, an outlying province of the Seleukidan Empire, once more
appeared on the Indian Frontier, which they effectively occupied for
more than a century. They struck the well-known Graeco-Bactrian coins;
the most famous of the Indo-Greek princes were Apollodotos and Menander.
Towards the close of this dynasty, parts of Sindh and Afghanistan were
conquered by Saka Scythians from Central Asia. They struck what are
termed the Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins bearing names in
legible Greek legends--Manes, Azes, Azilises, Gondophares, Abdagases.
Both Greeks and Sakas were overthrown by the Kushans. The extensive gold
and copper Kushan currency, with inscriptions in the Greek script,
contains the names of Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, and others. In
addition to the coins of these foreign dynasties, there are the purely
Indian currencies, e.g. the coins of Taxila, and those bearing the names
of such tribes as the Odumbaras, Kunindas, and Yaudheyas. The White Huns
overthrew the Kushan Empire in the fifth century. After their own fall
in the sixth century, there are more and more debased types of coinage
such as the ubiquitous _Gadhiya paisa_, a degraded Sassanian type. In
the ninth century we again meet with coins bearing distinct names, the
"bull and horseman" currency of the Hindu kings of Kabul. We have now
reached the beginning of the Muhammadan rule in India. Muhammad bin
Sam was the founder of the first Pathan dynasty of Delhi, and was
succeeded by a long line of Sultans. The Pathan and Moghal coins bear
Arabic and Persian legends. There were mints at Lahore, Multan,
Hafizabad, Kalanaur, Derajat, Peshawar, Srinagar and Jammu. An issue of
coins peculiar to the Panjab is that of the Sikhs. Their coin legends,
partly Persian, partly Panjabi, are written in the Persian and Gurmukhi
scripts. Amongst Sikh mints were Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Dera,
Anandgarh, Jhang, and Kashmir.
[Illustration: Fig. 82. Coins.
1. Silver punch-marked coin. 2. Drachma of Sophytes (Panjab Satrap about
time of Alexander). 3. Hemidrachma of Azes. 4. Copper coin of Taxila. 5.
Silver Kuninda coin. 6. Stater of Wema Kadphises. 7. Stater of Kanishka.
8. Later Kushan stater. 9. White Hun silver piece. 10. Gadhiya _paisa_.
11. Silver coin of Spalapati Deva, Hindu King of Kabul.]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 7: See page 166.]
CHAPTER XXII
ADMINISTRATION--GENERAL
~Panjab Districts.~--The administrative unit in the Panjab is the district
in charge of a Deputy Commissioner. The districts are divided into
_tahsils_, each on the average containing four, and are grouped together
in divisions managed by Commissioners. There are 28 districts and five
divisions. An ordinary Panjab district has an area of 2000 to 3000
square miles and contains from 1000 to 2000 village estates. Devon, the
third in size of the English counties, is about equal to an average
Panjab district.
~Branches of Administration.~--The provincial governments of India are
organized in three branches, Executive, Judicial, and Revenue, and a
number of special departments, such as Forests and Irrigation. Under
"Judicial" there are two subdivisions, civil and criminal. The tendency
at first is for powers in all three branches to be concentrated in the
hands of single individuals, development tends to specialization, but it
is a matter of controversy how far the separation of executive and
magisterial functions can be carried without jeopardy to the common
weal.
~The Lieutenant Governor.~--At the head of the whole administration is the
Lieutenant Governor, who holds office for five years. He has a strong
Secretariat to help in the dispatch of business. The experiment of
governing the Panjab by a Board was speedily given up, and for sixty
years it has enjoyed the advantage of one man government, the Lieutenant
Governor controlling all subordinate authorities and being himself only
controlled by the Governor General in Council. The independence of the
Courts in the exercise of judicial functions is of course safeguarded.
~Official hierarchy.~--The following is a list of the official hierarchy
in the different branches of the administration:
_A._ Lieutenant Governor.
_B._ Five Judges of Chief Court (_j_).
_C._ Two Financial Commissioners (_r_).
_D._ Five Commissioners, (_e_) and (_r_).
_E._ Sixteen Divisional and Sessions Judges (_j_).
_F._ Deputy Commissioners, (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).
_G._ District Judges (_civ_).
_H._ Subordinate Judges (_civ_).
_J._ Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners, (_e_), (_j_) and (_r_).
_K._ Tahsildars (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).
_L._ _Munsifs_ (_civ_).
_M._ _Naib-Tahsildars_, (_e_) (_r_) and (_j_).
The letters in brackets indicate the classes of functions which the
official concerned usually exercises. Translated into a diagram we have
the following:
Lieutenant Governor
Judicial Executive Revenue
Chief Court Financial
Commissioners
Divisional and Sessions Judges Commissioners
Civil Criminal
District Judges Deputy Commissioners
Asst. and Extra Asst.
Commissioners
Subordinate
Judges
_Tahsildars_
_Munsifs_
_Naib-Tahsildars_
~Tahsildars and Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners.~--Thus the
chain of executive authority runs down to the _tahsildar's_ assistant or
_naib_ through the Commissioner and the Deputy Commissioner, the
_tahsildar_ being directly responsible to the latter. The Assistant and
Extra Assistant Commissioners are the Deputy Commissioner's Assistants
at headquarters, and as such are invested with powers in all branches.
The _tahsildar_, a very important functionary, is in charge of a
_tahsil_. He is linked on to the village estates by a double chain, one
official consisting of the _kanungos_ and the _patwaris_ or village
accountants whom they supervise, the other non-official consisting of
the village headmen and the _zaildars_, each of whom is the intermediary
between the revenue and police staffs and the villages.
~Subdivisional Officers.~--In some heavy districts one or more _tahsils_
are formed into a subdivision and put in charge of a resident Assistant
or Extra Assistant Commissioner, exercising such independent authority
as the Deputy Commissioner thinks fit to entrust to him.
~The Deputy Commissioner and his Assistants.~--As the officer responsible
for the maintenance of order the Deputy Commissioner is District
Magistrate and has large powers both for the prevention and punishment
of crime. The District Superintendent is his Assistant in police
matters. The Civil Surgeon is also under his control, and he has an
Indian District Inspector of Schools to assist him in educational
business. The Deputy Commissioner is subject to the control of the
Divisional Commissioner.
~Financial Commissioners.~--In all matters connected with land, excise,
and income tax administration the Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner
are subject to the control of the Financial Commissioners, who are also
the final appellate authority in revenue cases. As chief district
revenue officer the Deputy Commissioner's proper title is "Collector," a
term which indicates his responsibility for the realization of all
Government revenues. In districts which are canal irrigated the amount
is in some cases very large.
~Settlement Officers, etc.~--With the periodical revisions of the land
revenue assessment the Deputy Commissioner has no direct concern. That
very responsible duty is done by a special staff of Settlement Officers,
selected chiefly from among the Assistant Commissioners and working
under the Commissioners and Financial Commissioners. The Director of
Land Records, the Registrar of Co-operative Credit Societies, and in
some branches of his work the Director of Agriculture and Industries,
are controlled by the Financial Commissioners.
~The Chief Court.~--It must be admitted that Panjabis are very litigious
and that in some tracts they are extremely vindictive and reckless of
human life. The volume of litigation is swollen by the fact that the
country is one of small-holders subject as regards inheritance and other
matters to an uncodified customary law, which may vary from tribe to
tribe and tract to tract. A suit is to the Panjabi a rubber, the last
game of which he will play in Lahore, if the law permits. It is not
therefore extraordinary that the Chief Court constituted in 1865 with
two judges has now five, and that even this number has in the past
proved insufficient. In the same way the cadre of divisional and
sessions judges had in 1909 to be raised from 12 to 16.
~Administration of N. W. F. Province.~--In the N. W. F. Province no
Commissioner is interposed between the district officers and the Chief
Commissioner, under whom the Revenue Commissioner and the Judicial
Commissioner occupy pretty much the position of the Financial
Commissioners and the Chief Court in the Panjab.
~Departments.~--The principal departments are the Railway, Post Office,
Telegraphs, and Accounts, under the Government of India, and Irrigation,
Roads and Buildings, Forests, Police, Medical, and Education, under the
Lieutenant Governor. In matters affecting the rural population, as a
great part of the business of the Forest Department must do, the
Conservator of Forests is subject to the control of the Financial
Commissioners, whose relations with the Irrigation Department are also
very intimate.
~Legislative Council.~--From 1897 to 1909 the Panjab had a local
Legislative Council of nine nominated members, which passed a number of
useful Acts. Under 9 Edward VII, cap. 4, an enlarged council with
increased powers has been constituted. It consists of 24 members of whom
eight are elected, one by the University, one by the Chamber of
Commerce, three by groups of Municipal and cantonment committees, and
three by groups of district boards. The other sixteen members are
nominated by the Lieutenant Governor, and at least six of them must be
persons not in Government service. The right of interpellation has been
given, and also some share in shaping the financial arrangements
embodied in the annual budget.
CHAPTER XXIII
ADMINISTRATION--LOCAL
~Municipalities.~--It is matter for reflection that, while the effect of
British administration has been to weaken self-government in villages,
half a century of effort has failed to make it a living thing in towns
and districts. The machinery exists, but outside a few towns the result
is poor. The attempt was made on too large a scale, municipal
institutions being bestowed on places which were no more than villages
with a _bazar_. This has been partially corrected of late years. A new
official entity, the "notified area," has been invented to suit the
requirements of such places. While there were in 1904 139 municipalities
and 48 notified areas, in 1911-12 the figures were 107 and 104
respectively. Even in the latter year 32 of the municipalities had
incomes not exceeding L1000 (Rs. 15,000). The total income of the 104
towns was Rs. 71,41,000 (L476,000), of which Rs. 44,90,000 (L300,000)
were derived from taxation. Nearly 90 p.c. of the taxation was drawn
from octroi, a hardy plant which has survived much economic criticism.
The expenditure was Rs. 69,09,000 (L461,000), of which Rs. 40,32,000
(L269,000) fall under the head of "Public Health and Convenience." The
incidence of taxation was Rs. 2.6 or a little over three shillings a
head.
~District Boards.~--The district boards can at present in practice only be
treated as consultative bodies, and well handled can in that capacity
play a useful role. Their income is mainly derived from the local rate,
a surcharge of one-twelfth on the land revenue. In 1911-12 the income
was Rs. 53,74,000 (L358,000) and the expenditure Rs. 54,44,500
(L363,000). The local rate contributed 51 p.c. and contributions from
Government 23 p.c. of the former figure. Public works took up 41 and
Education about 20 p.c. of the expenditure.
~Elections.~--Some of the seats in most of the municipalities and boards
are filled by election when any one can be induced to vote. Public
spirit is lacking and, as a rule, except when party or sectarian spirit
is rampant, the franchise is regarded with indifference.
CHAPTER XXIV
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE
~Financial Relations with Government of India.~--Local governments
exercise their financial powers in strict subordination to the
Government of India, which alone can borrow, and which requires the
submission for its sanction of the annual provincial budgets. To ensure
a reasonable amount of decentralization the Supreme Government has made
financial contracts with the provinces under which they receive definite
shares of the receipts, and are responsible for definite shares of the
expenditure, under particular heads. The existing contract dates only
from 1911-12 (see Table V).
~Income and Expenditure.~--Excluding income from railways, post offices,
telegraphs, salt, and sales of excise opium, which are wholly imperial,
the revenue of the Panjab in 1911-12 was L5,057,000 (Rs. 758,56,000), of
which the provincial share was L2,662,200 (Rs. 399,33,000), to which
have to be added L251,800 (Rs. 37,77,000) on account of assignments made
by the Government of India to the province. This brought up the total to
L2,914,000 (Rs. 437,10,000). The expenditure was L2,691,933 (Rs.
403,79,000). This does not include L983,000 spent from loan funds on
irrigation works, chiefly the great Triple Project. The large
expenditure on railways is imperial. Of the gross income more than
three-fourths is derived from the land (Land Revenue, 46 p.c.,
Irrigation, chiefly canal water rates, 29 p.c., and Forests, 1-3/4
p.c.). The balance consists of Excise 8-1/2 p.c., Stamps, 7 p.c., Income
Tax over 2 p.c., and other heads 5-3/4 p.c.
~Land Revenue.~--Certain items are included under the Land Revenue head
which are no part of the assessment of the land. The real land revenue
of the Panjab is about L2,000,000 and falls roughly at the rate of
eighteen pence per cultivated acre (Table II). It is not a land tax, but
an extremely moderate quit rent. In India the ruler has always taken a
share of the produce of the land from the persons in whom he recognised
a permanent right to occupy it or arrange for its tillage. The title of
the Raja to his share and the right of the occupier to hold the land he
tilled and pass it on to his children both formed part of the customary
law of the country. Under Indian rule the Raja's share was often
collected in kind, and the proportion of the crop taken left the tiller
of the soil little or nothing beyond what was needed for the bare
support of himself and his family. What the British Government did was
to commute the share in kind into a cash demand and gradually to limit
its amount to a reasonable figure. The need of moderation was not
learned without painful experience, but the Panjab was fortunate in this
that, except as regards the Delhi territory, the lesson had been learned
and a reasonable system evolved in the United Provinces before the
officers it sent to the Panjab began the regular assessments of the
districts of the new province. A land revenue settlement is usually made
for a term of 20 or 30 years. Since 1860 the limit of the government
demand has been fixed at one-half of the rental, but this figure is very
rarely approached in practice. Between a quarter and a third would be
nearer the mark. A large part of the land is tilled by the owners, and
the rent of the whole has to be calculated from the data for the part,
often not more than a third or two-fifths of the whole, cultivated by
tenants at will. The calculation is complicated by the fact that kind
rents consisting of a share of the crop are in most places commoner than
cash rents and are increasing in favour. The determination of the cash
value of the rent where the crop is shared is a very difficult task.
There is a large margin for error, but there can be no doubt that the
net result has almost always been undervaluation. It is probable that
the share of the produce of the fields which the land revenue absorbs
rarely exceeds one-seventh and is more often one-tenth or less. A clear
proof of the general moderation of Panjab assessments is furnished by
the fact that in the three years ending 1910-11 the recorded prices in
sales amounted to more than Rs. 125 per rupee of land revenue of the
land sold, which may be taken as implying a belief on the part of
purchasers that the landlord's rent is not double, but five or six times
the land revenue assessment, for a man would hardly pay Rs. 125 unless
he expected to get at least six or seven rupees annual profit.
~Fluctuating Assessments.~--The old native plan of taking a share of the
crop, though it offered great opportunity for dishonesty on both sides,
had at least the merit of roughly adjusting the demand to the character
of the seasons. It was slowly realized that there were parts of the
province where the harvests were so precarious that even a very moderate
fixed cash assessment was unsuitable. Various systems of fluctuating
cash assessment have therefore been introduced, and one-fourth of the
total demand is now of this character, the proportion having been
greatly increased by the adoption of the fluctuating principle in the
new canal colonies.
~Suspensions and Remissions.~--Where fixity is retained the strain in bad
seasons is lessened by a free use of suspensions, and, if the amounts of
which the collection has been deferred accumulate owing to a succession
of bad seasons, resort is had to remission.
~Irrigation Income and Expenditure.~--In a normal year in the Panjab over
one-fourth of the total crops is matured by the help of Government
Canals, and this proportion will soon be largely increased. In 1911-12
the income from canals amounted to L1,474,000, and the working expenses
to L984,000, leaving a surplus of L490,000. Nearly the whole of the
income is derived from water rates, which represent the price paid by
the cultivator for irrigation provided by State expenditure. The rates
vary for different crops and on different canals. The average incidence
may be roughly put at Rs. 4 or a little over five shillings per acre. In
calculating the profit on canals allowance is made for land revenue
dependent on irrigation, amounting to nearly L400,000.
[Illustration: Fig. 83. Skeleton District Map of Panjab.]
CHAPTER XXV
PANJAB DISTRICTS AND DELHI
~Districts and Divisions.~--The Panjab now consists of 28 districts
grouped in five divisions. In descriptions of districts and states
boundaries, railways, and roads, which appear on the face of the inset
maps, are omitted. Details regarding cultivation and crops will be found
in Tables II, III and IV, and information as to places of note in
Chapter XXX. The revenue figures of Panjab districts in this chapter
relate to the year 1911-12.
~Delhi Enclave.~--On the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi part of
the area of the old district of that name comprising 337 estates was
removed from the jurisdiction of the Panjab Government and brought under
the immediate authority of the Government of India (Act No. XIII of
1912). The remainder of the district was divided between Rohtak and
Gurgaon, and the headquarters of the Delhi division were transferred to
Ambala.
The area of the new province is only 528 square miles, and the
population including that of the City is estimated at 396,997. The
cultivated area is 340 square miles, more than half of which is
cultivated by the owners themselves. The principal agricultural tribe is
the Hindu Jats, who are hard-working and thrifty peasant farmers. The
land revenue is Rs. 4,00,203 (L26,680). The above figures only relate to
the part of the enclave formerly included in the Panjab[8]. The head of
the administration has the title of Chief Commissioner.
[Illustration: Fig. 84. Delhi Enclave.]
[Sidenote: Area,
14,832 sq. m.
Cultd area,
10,650 sq. m.
Pop. 3,704,608;
68 p.c. H.[9]
Land Rev.
Rs. 66,99,136
= L446,609.]
~The Ambala division~--includes four of the five districts of the
South-Eastern Plains, the submontane district of Ambala, and the hill
district of Simla. It is with the exception of Lahore the smallest
division, but it ranks first in cultivated area and third in population.
It is twice the size of Wales and has twice its population. The
Commissioner is in political charge of the hill state of Sirmur and of
five petty states in the plains.
[Illustration: Fig. 85. Hissar with portions of Phulkian States etc.]
[Sidenote: Area, 5213 sq. m.
Cultd area,
4201 sq.m.
Pop. 804,809;
67 p.c. H.
Land Rev.
Rs. 9,76,749
= L67,117.]
~Hissar District.~--Hissar is the south-western district of the division
and has a long common boundary with Bikaner. It is divided into five
_tahsils_, Hissar, Hansi, Bhiwani, Fatehabad, and Sirsa. There are four
natural divisions, Nali, Bagar, Rohi, and Hariana. The overflow of the
Ghagar, which runs through the north of the district, has transformed
the lands on either bank into hard intractable clay, which yields
nothing to the husbandman without copious floods. This is the Nali. The
Bagar is a region of rolling sand stretching along the Bikaner border
from Sirsa to Bhiwani. In Sirsa to the east of the Bagar is a plain of
very light reddish loam known as the Rohi, partly watered by the Sirhind
Canal. South of the Ghagar the loam in the east of the district is
firmer, and well adapted to irrigation, which much of it obtains from
branches of the Western Jamna Canal. This tract is known as Hariana, and
has given its name to a famous breed of cattle. The Government cattle
farm at Hissar covers an area of 65 square miles. North of the Fatehabad
_tahsil_ and surrounded by villages belonging to the Phulkian States is
an island of British territory called Budhlada. It belongs to the Jangal
Des, and has the characteristic drought-resisting sandy loam and sand of
that tract. Much of Budhlada is watered by the Sirhind Canal. Of the
total area of the district only about 9 p.c. is irrigated. The water
level is so far from the surface that well irrigation is usually
impossible, and the source of irrigation is canals.
Hissar suffered severely from the disorders which followed on the
collapse of the Moghal Empire and its ruin was consummated by the
terrible famine of 1783. The starving people died or fled and for years
the country lay desolate. It passed into the hands of the British 20
years later, but for another 20 years our hold on this outlying
territory was loose and ineffective. In 1857 the troops at Hansi,
Hissar, and Sirsa rose and killed all the Europeans who fell into their
hands. The Muhammadan tribes followed their example, and for a time
British authority ceased to exist. The district was part of the Delhi
territory transferred to the Panjab in 1858.
The rainfall is scanty, averaging 15 inches, and extremely capricious.
No other district suffers so much from famine as Hissar. The crops are
extraordinarily insecure, with a large surplus in a good season and
practically nothing when the rains fail badly. They consist mainly of
the cheap pulses and millets. With such fluctuating harvests it is
impossible to collect the revenues with any regularity, and large sums
have to be suspended in bad seasons.
Such industries as exist are mostly in Hansi and Bhiwani, where there
are mills for ginning and pressing cotton. Cotton cloths tastefully
embroidered with silk, known as _phulkaris_, are a well-known local
product.
[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
[Sidenote: Area, 2248 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1815 sq. m.
Pop. 714,834.
Land Rev.
Rs. 16,66,364
= L111,091.]
~Rohtak~--became a British possession in 1803, but it was not till after
the Mutiny that it was brought wholly under direct British
administration. The old district consisted of the three _tahsils_ of
Rohtak, Gohana, and Jhajar, but on the breaking up of the Delhi district
the Sonepat _tahsil_ was added.
Rohtak is practically a purely agricultural tract with large villages,
but no towns of any importance. By far the most important agricultural
tribe is the Hindu Jats. They are strong-bodied sturdy farmers, who keep
fine oxen and splendid buffaloes, and live in large and well organized
village communities. 37 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by canal
and well irrigation, the former being by far the more important. The
district consists mainly of a plain of good loam soil. There have been
great canal extensions in this plain, which under irrigation is very
fertile, yielding excellent wheat, cotton, and cane. There is a rich
belt of well irrigation in the Jamna valley, and in the south of the
district there are parts where wells can be profitably worked. Belts of
uneven sandy land are found especially in the west and south. The dry
cultivation is most precarious, for the rainfall is extremely variable.
In the old district it averages 20 inches. But averages in a tract like
Rohtak mean very little. The chief crops are the two millets and gram.
[Sidenote: Area, 2264 sq.m.
Cultd Area,
1701 sq. m.
Pop. 729,167.
Land Rev.
Rs. 15,98,333
= L106,556.]
~Gurgaon~ contains six _tahsils_, Rewari, Gurgaon, Nuh, Firozpur,
Palwal, and Ballabgarh. The southern part of the district projects into
Rajputana, and in its physical and racial characteristics really belongs
to that region.
Rewari is the only town of any importance. It has a large trade with
Rajputana. Apart from this the interests of the district are
agricultural. In Gurgaon the Jamna valley is for the most part narrow
and very poor. The plain above it in the Palwal _tahsil_ has a fertile
loam soil and is irrigated by the Agra Canal. The Hindu Jats of this
part of the district are good cultivators. The rest of Gurgaon consists
mostly of sand and sandy loam and low bare hills. In Rewari the skill
and industry of the Hindu Ahirs have produced wonderful results
considering that many of the wells are salt and much of the land very
sandy. The lazy and thriftless Meos of the southern part of the district
are a great contrast to the Ahirs. They are Muhammadans.
About a quarter of the area is protected by irrigation from wells, the
Agra Canal, and embankments or "_bands_," which catch and hold up the
hill drainages. Owing to the depth and saltness of many of the wells the
cultivation dependent on them is far from secure, and the "_band_"
irrigation is most precarious. The large dry area is subject to
extensive and complete crop failures. The average rainfall over a series
of years is 24 inches, but its irregularities from year to year are
extreme. The district is a poor one, and for its resources bears the
heaviest assessment in the Panjab. It requires the most careful revenue
management. There are brine wells at Sultanpur, but the demand for the
salt extracted is now very small.
[Illustration: Fig. 87.]
[Sidenote: Area, 3153 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1744 sq. m.
Pop. 799,787;
70 p.c. H.
Land Rev.
Rs. 12,92,620
=L86,175.]
~Karnal~ is midway in size between Rohtak and Hissar. One-third of the
cultivation is now protected by irrigation, two-fifths of the irrigation
being from wells and three-fifths from the Western Jamna Canal. There
are four _tahsils_, Thanesar, Karnal, Kaithal, and Panipat. The
peasantry consists mostly of hardworking Hindu Jats, but there are also
many Hindu and Muhammadan Rajput villages. The chief towns are Panipat,
Karnal, and Kaithal.
[Illustration: _Fig. 88._]
The district falls broadly into two divisions, the boundary between them
being the southern limit of the floods of the Sarusti in years of heavy
rainfall. The marked features of the northern division is the effect
which the floods of torrents of intermittent flow, the Sarusti,
Markanda, Umla, and Ghagar have on agriculture. Some tracts are included
like the Andarwar and the outlying villages of the Powadh[10] in Kaithal
which are fortunately unaffected by inundation, and have good well
irrigation. The country between the Umla and Markanda in Thanesar gets
rich silt deposits and is generally fertile. The Kaithal Naili is the
tract affected by the overflow of the Sarusti, Umla, and Ghagar. It is a
wretched fever-stricken region where a short lived race of weakly people
reap precarious harvests. The southern division is on the whole a much
better country. It includes the whole of Karnal and Panipat, the south
of Kaithal, and a small tract in the extreme east of the Thanesar
_tahsil_. North of Karnal the Jamna valley or Khadir is unhealthy and
has in many parts a poor soil. South of Karnal it is much better in
every respect. Above the Khadir is the Bangar, a plain of good loam.
North of Karnal its cultivation is protected by wells and the people are
in fair circumstances. South of that town it is watered by the Western
Jamna Canal. Another slight rise brings one to the Nardak of the Karnal
and Kaithal _tahsils_. Till the excavation of the Sirsa branch of the
Western Jamna Canal and of the Nardak Distributary much of the Nardak
was covered with _dhak_ jangal, and the cultivation was of the most
precarious nature, for in this part of the district the rainfall is both
scanty and capricious, and well cultivation is only possible in the
north. The introduction of canal irrigation has effected an enormous
change. Wheat and gram are the great crops.
Historically Karnal is one of the most interesting districts. The Nardak
is the scene of the great struggle celebrated in the Mahabharata. The
district contains the holy city of Thanesar, once the capital of a great
Hindu kingdom. It has found climate a more potent instrument of ruin
than the sword of Mahmud of Ghazni, who sacked it in 1014. It still on
the occasion of Eclipse fairs attracts enormous crowds of pilgrims.
Pihowa is another very sacred place. Naraina, a few miles to the
north-west of Karnal, was the scene of two famous fights[11], and three
times, in 1526, 1556, and 1761, the fate of India was decided at
Panipat.
[Sidenote: Area, 1851 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1174 sq. m.
Pop. 689,970.
Land Rev.
Rs. 11,47,688
= L76,513]
~Ambala~ is a submontane district of very irregular
shape. It includes two small hill tracts,
Morni and Kasauli. There is little irrigation,
for in most parts the rainfall is ample.
Wheat is the chief crop. The population
has been declining in the past 20 years.
[Illustration: Fig. 89.]
The only town of importance is Ambala. Jagadhri is a busy little place
now connected through private enterprise by a light railway with the N.
W. Railway. The district consists of two parts almost severed from one
another physically and wholly different as regards people, language, and
agricultural prosperity. The Rupar subdivision in the north-west beyond
the Ghagar has a fertile soil, and, except in the Nali, as the tract
flooded by the Ghagar is called, a vigorous Jat peasantry, whose native
tongue is Panjabi. The three south-eastern _tahsils_, Ambala,
Naraingarh, and Jagadhri, are weaker in every respect. The loam is often
quite good, but interspersed with it are tracts of stubborn clay largely
put under precarious rice crops. The Jats are not nearly so good as
those of Rupar, and Rajputs, who are mostly Musulmans, own a large
number of estates.
[Sidenote: Area, 101 sq. m.
Cultd area,
15 sq. m.
Pop. in Feb.
1911, 39,320.
Land Rev.
Rs. 17,484
= L1166.]
Simla consists of three little tracts in the hills known as Bharauli,
Kotkhai, and Kotgarh, and of patches of territory forming the
cantonments of Dagshai, Subathu, Solon, and Jutogh, the site of the
Lawrence Military School at Sanawar, and the great hill station of
Simla. Bharauli lies south-west of Simla in the direction of Kasauli.
Kotkhai is in the valley of the Giri, a tributary of the Jamna. Kotgarh
is on the Sutlej and borders on the Bashahr State. The Deputy
Commissioner of Simla is also Superintendent or Political Officer of 28
hill states.
[Sidenote: Area,
19,934 sq. m.
Cultd area,
7762 sq. m.
Pop. 3,967,724.
Land Rev.
Rs. 61,64,172
= L410,945.]
~Jalandhar Division.~--More than half the area of the Jalandhar division
is contributed by the huge district of Kangra, which stretches from the
Plains to the lofty snowy ranges on the borders of Tibet. The other
districts are Hoshyarpur in the submontane zone, Jalandhar and Ludhiana,
which belong to the Central Plains, and Ferozepore, which is part of the
South-Eastern Panjab. Sikhs are more numerous than in any other
division, but are outnumbered by both Hindus and Muhammadans. The
Commissioner has political charge of the hill states of Mandi and Suket
and of Kapurthala in the Plains.
[Sidenote: Area, 9878 sq. m.
Cultd area,
918 sq. m.
Pop. 770,386;
94 p.c. H.
Land Rev.
Rs. 9,26,661
= L61,777.]
~Kangra~ is the largest district in the Panjab. It includes three tracts
of very different character:
(_a_) Spiti and Lahul, area exceeding 4400 square miles, forming part of
Tibet;
(_b_) Kulu and Saraj;
(_c_) Kangra proper, area 2939 square miles.
[Illustration: Fig. 90.]
Lahul, Spiti, Kulu, and Saraj form a subdivision in charge of an
Assistant Commissioner. The people of Kangra are Hindus. Islam never
penetrated into these hills as a religion, though the Rajput Rajas of
Kangra became loyal subjects of the Moghal Emperors. In its last days
Ranjit Singh called in as an ally against the Gurkhas remained as a
hated ruler. The country was ceded to the British Government in 1846.
The Rajas were chagrined that we did not restore to them their royal
authority, but only awarded them the status of _jagirdars_. An outbreak,
which was easily suppressed, occurred in 1848. Since then Kangra has
enjoyed 65 years of peace. A Gurkha regiment is stationed at the
district headquarters at Dharmsala. The cultivation ranges from the rich
maize and rice fields of Kulu and Kangra to the poor buckwheat and
_kulath_ on mountain slopes. Rice is irrigated by means of _kuhls_,
ingeniously constructed channels to lead the water of the torrents on to
the fields.
~Spiti and Lahul.~--Spiti, or rather Piti, is a country of great rugged
mountains, whose bare red and yellow rocks rise into crests of
everlasting snow showing clear under a cloudless blue sky. There is no
rain, but in winter the snowfall is heavy. The highest of the mountains
exceeds 23,000 feet. Piti is drained by the river of the same name,
which after passing through Bashahr falls I into the Sutlej at an
elevation of 11,000 feet. Of the few villages several stand at a height
of from 13,000 to 14,000 feet. The route to Piti from Kulu passes over
the Hamtu Pass (14,200 feet) and the great Shigri glacier. The people
are Buddhists. They are governed by their hereditary ruler or Nono
assisted by five elders, the Assistant Commissioner exercising a general
supervision. Indian laws do not apply to the sparse population of this
remote canton, which has a special regulation of its own. Lahul lies to
the west of Piti, from which it is separated by a lofty range. It is
entered from Kulu by the Rotang Pass (13,000 feet) and the road from it
to Ladakh passes over the Baralacha (16,350 feet). The whole country is
under snow from December to April, but there is very little rain. The
two streams, the Chandra and Bhaga, which unite to form the Chenab, flow
through Lahul and the few villages are situated at a height of 10,000
feet in their elevated valleys. The people are Buddhists. In summer the
population is increased by "Gaddi" shepherds from Kangra, who drive lean
flocks in the beginning of June over the Rotang and take them back from
the Alpine pastures in the middle of September fat and well liking.
[Illustration: Fig. 91. Bias at Manali.]
~Kulu and Saraj.~--The Kulu Valley, set in a mountain frame and with the
Bias, here a highland stream, running through the heart of it, is one of
the fairest parts of the Panjab Himalaya. Manali, at the top of the
Valley on the road to the Rotang, is a very beautiful spot. Kulu is
connected with Kangra through Mandi by the Babbu and Dulchi passes. The
latter is generally open the whole year round. The headquarters are at
Sultanpur, but the Assistant Commissioner lives at Nagar. In Kulu the
cultivation is often valuable and the people are well off. The climate
is good and excellent apples and pears are grown by European settlers.
Inner and outer Saraj are connected by the Jalaori Pass on the watershed
of the Sutlej and Bias. Saraj is a much rougher and poorer country than
Kulu. There are good _deodar_ forests in the Kulu subdivision. In 1911
the population of Kulu, Saraj, Lahul, and Piti, numbered 124,803. The
Kulu people are a simple folk in whose primitive religion local godlings
of brass each with his little strip of territory take the place of the
Brahmanic gods. It is a quaint sight to see their ministers carrying
them on litters to the fair at Sultanpur, where they all pay their
respects to a little silver god known as Raghunathji, who is in a way
their suzerain.
[Illustration: Fig. 92. Religious Fair in Kulu.]
Kangra proper is bounded on the north by the lofty wall of the Dhaula
Dhar and separated from Kulu by the mountains of Bara Bangahal. It
consists of the five _tahsils_ of Kangra, Palampur, Nurpur, Dera, and
Hamirpur. The first two occupy the rich and beautiful Kangra Valley.
They are separated from the other three _tahsils_ by a medley of low
hills with a general trend from N.W. to S.E. They are drained by the
Bias, and are much more broken and poorer than the Kangra Valley. The
tea industry, once important, is now dead so far as carried on by
English planters. The low hills have extensive _chir_ pine forests. They
have to be managed mainly in the interests of the local population, and
are so burdened with rights that conservation is a very difficult
problem. In 1911 the population of the five _tahsils_ amounted to
645,583. The most important tribes are Brahmans, Rajputs, and
hardworking Girths. The hill Brahman is usually a farmer pure and
simple.
[Illustration: Fig. 93. Kulu Women.]
[Illustration: Fig. 94.]
[Sidenote: Area, 2247 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1128 sq. m.
Pop. 918,569;
54 p.c. H.
Land Rev.
Rs. 14,22,527
= L494,835.]
~Hoshyarpur~ became a British possession in 1846 after the first Sikh
War. It is a typically submontane district. A line of low bare hills
known as the Solasinghi Range divides it from Kangra. Further west the
Katar dhar, a part of the Siwaliks, runs through the heart of the
district. Between these two ranges lies the fertile Jaswan Dun
corresponding to the Una _tahsil_. The other three _tahsils_,
Garhshankar, Hoshyarpur, and Dasuya, are to the west of the Katar dhar.
Una is drained by the Soan, a tributary of the Sutlej. The western
_tahsils_ have a light loam soil of great fertility, except where it has
been overlaid by sand from the numerous _chos_ or torrents which issue
from the Siwaliks. The denudation of that range was allowed to go on for
an inordinate time with disastrous results to the plains below. At last
the Panjab Land Preservation (_Chos_) Act II of 1890 gave the Government
power to deal with the evil, but it will take many years to remedy the
mischief wrought by past inaction. The rainfall averages about 32 inches
and the crops are secure. The population has fallen off by 93,000 in 20
years, a striking instance of the ravages of plague. The chief tribes
are Jats, Rajputs, and Gujars.
[Sidenote: Area, 1431 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1069 sq. m.
Pop. 801,920;
45 p.c. M.
33 p.c. H.
22 p.c. S.
Land Rev.
Rs. 14,77,661
= L98,511.]
~Jalandhar District.~--Modern though the town of Jalandhar looks it was
the capital of a large Hindu kingdom, which included also Hoshyarpur,
Mandi, Suket, and Chamba, and in the ninth century was a rival of
Kashmir (page 160). The present district is with the exception of Simla
the smallest, and for its size the richest, in the province. It contains
four _tahsils_, Nawashahr, Phillaur, Jalandhar, and Nakodar. About 45
p.c. of the cultivation is protected by 28,000 wells. Behind the long
river frontage on the Sutlej is the Bet, divided by a high bank from the
more fertile uplands. The soil of the latter is generally an excellent
loam, but there is a good deal of sand in the west of the district. The
rainfall averages about 26 inches and the climate is healthy. The well
cultivation is the best in the Panjab. Between 1901 and 1911 the
population declined by 13 p.c. Jats and Arains, both excellent
cultivators, are the predominant tribes. British rule dates from 1846.
[Illustration: Fig. 95.]
[Sidenote: Area, 1452 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1143 sq. m.
Pop. 517,192;
40 p.c. S.
35 p.c. M
25 p.c. H.
Land Rev.
Rs. 11,57,399
= L77,160.]
~Ludhiana~ on the opposite bank of the Sutlej is also a very small
district. It consists of a river Bet and Uplands with generally speaking
a good loam soil. But there are very sandy outlying estates in the
Jangal Des surrounded by Patiala and Jind villages. There are three
_tahsils_, Samrala, Ludhiana, and Jagraon. Of the cultivated area 26
p.c. is irrigated, from wells (19) and from the Sirhind Canal (7). Wheat
and gram are the principal crops. Between 1901 and 1911 the population
fell from 673,097 to 517,192, the chief cause of decline being plague.
Sturdy hard-working Jats are the backbone of the peasantry. They furnish
many recruits to the Army. Ludhiana is a thriving town and an important
station on the N.W. Railway. Our connection with Ludhiana began in 1809,
and the district assumed practically its present shape in 1846 after the
first Sikh War.
[Illustration: Fig. 96.]
[Sidenote: Area, 4286 sq. m.
Cultd area,
3504 sq. m.
Pop. 959,657;
44 p.c. M.
29 p.c. H.
27 p.c. S.
Land Rev.
Rs. 11,79,924
= L78,661.]
~Ferozepore~ is a very large district. The Faridkot State nearly cuts it
in two. The northern division includes the _tahsils_ of Ferozepore,
Zira, and Moga, the last with an outlying tract known as Mahraj, which
forms an island surrounded by the territory of several native states.
The southern division contains the _tahsils_ of Muktsar and Fazilka. Our
connection with Ferozepore began in 1809, and, when the widow of the
last Sikh chief of Ferozepore died in 1835, we assumed direct
responsibility for the administration of a considerable part of the
district. Two of the great battles of the first Sikh War, Mudki and
Ferozeshah or more properly Pherushahr, were fought within its borders.
Mamdot with an area of about 400 square miles ceased to be independent
in 1855, but the descendant of the last ruler still holds it in _jagir_.
Fazilka was added in 1864 when the Sirsa district was broken up. Of the
cultivated area 47-1/2 p.c. is irrigated by the Sirhind Canal, the Grey
Inundation Canals, and wells. For the most part the district is divided
into three tracts, the riverain, Hithar or Bet, with a poor clay soil
and a weak population, the Utar, representing river deposits of an older
date when the Sutlej ran far west of its present bed, and the Rohi, an
upland plain of good sandy loam, now largely irrigated by the Sirhind
Canal. The Grey Canals furnish a far less satisfactory source of
irrigation to villages in the Bet and Utar. In different parts of this
huge district the rainfall varies from 10 to 22 inches. The chief crops
are gram and wheat. The Jats are the chief tribe. In the Uplands they
are a fine sturdy race, but unfortunately they are addicted to strong
drink, and violent crime is rife. Ferozepore has a large cantonment and
arsenal and a big trade in grain. It is an important railway junction.
[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
[Sidenote: Area,
12,387 sq. m.
Cultd area,
7924 sq. m.
Pop 4,656,629;
57 p.c. M.
24 p.c. H.
16 p.c. S.
Land Rev.
Rs. 70,53,856
= L470,257.]
~Lahore Division.~--Lahore is the smallest division, but the first in
population. Its political importance is great as the home of the Sikhs
of the Manjha, and because the capital of the province and the sacred
city of the _Khalsa_ are both within its limits. It contains the five
districts of Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Lahore, and Amritsar. The
Commissioner is in political charge of the Chamba State.
[Sidenote: Area, 1809 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1281 sq. m.
Pop. 836,771;
49 p.c. M.
34 p.c. H.
14-1/2 p.c. S.
Land Rev.
Rs. 17,68,412
= L117,894.]
~Gurdaspur~ is a submontane district with a good rainfall and a large
amount of irrigation. The crops are secure except in part of the
Shakargarh _tahsil_. 27 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated, 16 by
wells and 11 by the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Irrigation is only allowed
from the Canal for the Autumn harvest. The chief crop is wheat and the
area under cane is unusually large. Of late years plague has been very
fatal and the population fell from 940,334 in 1901 to 836,771 in 1911.
Jats, Rajputs, Arains, Gujars, and Brahmans, are the chief agricultural
tribes, the first being by far the most important element. There are
four _tahsils_, Batala, Gurdaspur, and Pathankot in the Bari Doab, and
Shakargarh to the west of the Ravi. Batala is one of the most fertile
and prosperous tracts in the Panjab and Gurdaspur is also thriving.
Pathankot is damp, fever stricken, and unprosperous. It lies mostly in
the plains but contains a considerable area in the low hills and higher
up two enclaves, Bakloh and Dalhousie, surrounded by Chamba villages.
Shakargarh is much more healthy, and is better off than Pathankot. There
is good duck and snipe shooting to be got in some parts of the district,
as the drainage from the hills collects in swamps and _jhils_.
[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
Area, 1991 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1427 sq. m.
Pop. 979,553;
62 p.c. M.
25 p.c. H.
8 p.c. S.
Land Rev.
Rs. 14,79,390
= L98,626.
~Sialkot~ is another secure and fully cultivated submontane district. It
lies wholly in the Rechna Doab and includes a small well-watered hilly
tract, Bajwat, on the borders of Jammu. The Ravi divides Sialkot from
Amritsar an the Chenab separates it from Gujrat. The Degh and some
smaller torrents run through the district. In the south there is much
hard sour clay, part hitherto unculturable. But irrigation from the
Upper Chenab Canal will give a new value to it. There are five
_tahsils_, Zafarwal, Sialkot, Daska, Pasrur, and Raya. The chief crop is
wheat which is largely grown on the wells, numbering 22,000. The
pressure of the population on the soil was considerable, but since 1891
the total has fallen from 1,119,847 to 979,553 as the result of plague
and emigration to the new canal colonies. Christianity has obtained a
considerable number of converts in Sialkot. The Jats form the backbone
of the peasantry. Rajputs and Arains are also important tribes, but
together they are not half as numerous as the Jats.
[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
[Sidenote: Area, 4802 sq. m.
Cultd area,
2166 sq. m.
Pop. 923,419.
Land Rev.
Rs. 15,43,440
= L102,896.]
~Gujranwala~ is a very large district in the Rechna Doab, with five
_tahsils_, Wazirabad, Gujranwala, Sharakpur, Hafizabad, and Khangah
Dogran. The rainfall varies from 20 inches on the Sialkot border to ten
or eleven in the extreme south-west corner of the district. Gujranwala
is naturally divided into three tracts: the Riverain of the Ravi and
Chenab, the Bangar or well tract, and the Bar once very partially
cultivated, but now commanded by the Lower and Upper Chenab Canals.
Enormous development has taken place in the Hafizabad and Khangah Dogran
_tahsils_ in the 20 years since the Lower Chenab Canal was opened. Of
late years the rest of the district has suffered from plague and
emigration, and has not prospered. But a great change will be effected
by irrigation from the Upper Chenab Canal, which is just beginning. In
the east of the district much sour clay will become culturable land, and
the Bar will be transformed as in the two _tahsils_ watered by the older
canal. Of the cultivated area 73-1/2 p.c. is irrigated, 36-1/2 from
wells and 37 from canals. The chief crops are wheat and gram. There is,
as is usual in the Western Panjab, a great preponderance of Spring
crops. The Jats are far and away the strongest element in the
population.
[Sidenote: Area, 1601 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1184 sq. m.
Pop. 880,728;
46 p.c. M.
29 p.c. S.
24 p.c. H.
Land Rev.
Rs. 12,70,799
= L84,720.]
~Amritsar~ is a small district lying in the Bari Doab between Gurdaspur
and Lahore. 62 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated, half from
12,000 wells and half from the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Unfortunately much
waterlogging exists, due to excessive use of canal water and defective
drainage. Measures are now being taken to deal with this great evil,
which has made the town of Amritsar and other parts of the district
liable to serious outbreaks of fever. There are two small riverain
tracts on the Bias and Ravi and a poor piece of country in Ajnala
flooded by the Sakki. The main part of the district is a monotonous
plain of fertile loam. The two western _tahsils_, Amritsar and Tarn
Taran, are prosperous, Ajnala is depressed. The rainfall is moderate
averaging 21 or 22 inches, and the large amount of irrigation makes the
harvests secure. The chief crops are wheat and gram.
[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
The Sikh Jats of the Manjha to the south of the Grand Trunk Road form by
far the most important element in the population. Between 1901 and 1911
there was a falling off from 1,023,828 to 880,728. Besides its religious
importance the town of Amritsar is a great trade centre.
[Illustration: Fig. 102.]
[Sidenote: Area, 2824 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1866 sq. m.
Pop. 1,036,158.
Land Rev.
Rs. 991,815
= L66,121.]
~Lahore~ lies in the Bari Doab to the south-west of Amritsar. It is a
much larger district, though, like Amritsar, it has only three
_tahsils_, Lahore, Kasur, and Chunian. 76 p.c. of the cultivated area is
irrigated, 23 from wells and 53 from canals. There has been an enormous
extension of irrigation from the Upper Bari Doab Canal in the past 30
years. Accordingly, though the rainfall is somewhat scanty, the crops
are generally secure. The principal are wheat and gram. The district
consists of the Riverain on the Bias and Ravi, the latter extending to
both sides of the river, and the plain of the Manjha, largely held by
strong and energetic Sikh Jats. In the Ravi valley industrious Arains
predominate. Railway communications are excellent. Trade activity is not
confined to the city of Lahore. Kasur, Chunian, and Raiwind are
important local centres.
[Sidenote: Area,
21,361 sq. m.
Cultd area,
8099 sq.m.
Pop. 3,353,052;
87 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 50,43,587
= L336,239.]
The ~Rawalpindi Division~ occupies the N.W. of the Panjab. It is in area
the second largest division, but in population the smallest. Five-sixths
of the people profess the faith of Islam. It includes six districts,
Gujrat, Jhelam, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, and Shahpur. This is the
division from which the Panjab Musalmans, who form so valuable an
element in our army, are drawn.
[Illustration: Fig. 103.]
[Sidenote: Area, 2357 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1369 sq. m.
Pop. 784,011.
Land Rev.
Ra. 887,220
= L59,148.]
~Gujrat~ lies in the Jech Doab. The two northern _tahsils_, Gujrat and
Kharian, have many of the features of a submontane tract. In the former
the Pabbi, a small range of low bare hills, runs parallel to the Jhelam,
and the outliers of the Himalaya in Kashmir are not far from the
northern border of the district. The uplands of these two _tahsils_
slope pretty rapidly from N.E. to S.W., and contain much light soil.
They are traversed by sandy torrents, dry in winter, but sometimes very
destructive in the rains. Phalia on the other hand is a typical plain's
_tahsil_. It has on the Chenab a wide riverain, which also separates the
uplands of the Gujrat _tahsil_ from that river. The Jhelam valley is
much narrower. Above the present Chenab alluvial tract there is in
Phalia a well tract known as the Hithar whose soil consists of older
river deposits, and at a higher level a Bar, which will now receive
irrigation from the Upper Jhelam Canal and become a rich agricultural
tract. 26 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated from wells. Jats and
Gujars are the great agricultural tribes, the former predominating. The
climate is mild and the rainfall sufficient. The chief crops are wheat
and _bajra_.
[Sidenote: Area, 2813 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1162 sq. m.
Pop. 511,575;
88 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Ra. 752,758
= L50,183.]
The ~Jhelam district~ lies to the north of the river of the same name.
The district is divided into three _tahsils_, Jhelam, Chakwal, Pind
Dadan Khan. The river frontage is long, extending for about 80 miles,
and the river valley is about eight miles wide. The district contains
part of the Salt Range, from the eastern end of which the Nili and Tilla
spurs strike northwards, enclosing very broken ravine country called the
Khuddar. The Pabbi tract, embracing the Chakwal _tahsil_ and the north
of the Jhelam _tahsil_, is much less broken, though it too is scored by
deep ravines and traversed by torrents, mostly flowing north-west into
the Sohan river. Two large torrents, the Kaha and the Bunhar, drain into
the Jhelam. There are some fertile valleys enclosed in the bare hills of
the Salt Range. The average rainfall is about 20 inches and the climate
is good. It is hot in summer, but the cold weather is long, and
sometimes for short periods severe. There is little irrigation and the
harvests are by no means secure. The chief crops are wheat and _bajra_.
The country breeds fine horses, fine cattle, and fine men. Numerically
Jats, Rajputs, and Awans are the principal tribes, but the Janjuas and
Gakkhars, though fewer in number, are an interesting element in the
population, having great traditions behind them. Awans, Janjuas, and
Gakkhars supply valuable recruits to the army. Most of the villages are
far from any railway.
[Illustration: Fig. 104.]
[Sidenote: Area, 2010 sq. m.
Cultd area,
937 sq. m.
Pop. 547,827;
83 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 674,650
= L44,977.]
[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
~Rawalpindi~ is the smallest district in the division. Along the whole
eastern border the Jhelam, which runs in a deep gorge, divides it from
Kashmir. There are four _tahsils_, Murree, Kahuta, Rawalpindi, and Gujar
Khan. The first is a small wedge of mountainous country between Kashmir
and Hazara. The hills are continued southwards at a lower level in the
Kahuta _tahsil_ parallel with the Jhelam. The greater part of the
district consists of a high plateau of good light loam, in parts much
eaten into by ravines. Where, as often happens, it is not flat the
fields have to be carefully banked up. The plateau is drained by the
Sohan and the Kanshi. The latter starting in the south of Kahuta runs
through the south-east of the Gujar Khan _tahsil_, and for some miles
forms the boundary of the Rawalpindi and Jhelam districts. The district
is very fully cultivated except in the hills. In the plains the rainfall
is sufficient and the soil very cool and clean, except in the extreme
west, where it is sometimes gritty, and, while requiring more, gets
less, rain. The chief crops are wheat, the _Kharif_ pulses and _bajra_.
The climate is good. The cold weather is long, and, except in January
and February, when the winds from the snows are very trying, it is
pleasant. In the plains the chief tribes are Rajputs and Awans. Gakkhars
are of some importance in Kahuta. In the Murree the leading tribes are
the Dhunds and the Sattis, the latter a fine race, keen on military
service.
[Illustration: Fig. 106. Shop in Murree Bazar.]
~Rawalpindi~ is the largest cantonment in Northern India. From it the
favourite hill station of Murree is easily reached, and soon after
leaving Murree the traveller crosses the Jhelam by the Kohala bridge and
enters the territory of the Maharaja of Kashmir.
[Sidenote: Area, 4025 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1678 sq. m.
Pop. 519,273;
91 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 672,851
=L44,857.]
[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
~Attock district.~--Though Attock is twice the size of Rawalpindi it has
a smaller population. Nature has decreed that it should be sparsely
peopled. The district stretches from the Salt Range on the south to the
Hazara border on the north. It contains itself the fine Kalachitta range
in the north, the small and barren Khairi Murat range in the centre, and
a line of bare hills running parallel with the Indus in the west. That
river forms the western boundary for 120 miles, dividing Attock from
Peshawar and Kohat. It receives in the Attock district two tributaries,
the Haro and the Soan. There are four _tahsils_, Attock, Fatehjang,
Pindigheb, and Talagang. The northern _tahsil_ of Attock is most
favoured by nature. It contains the Chach plain, part of which has a
rich soil and valuable well irrigation, also on the Hazara border a
small group of estates watered by cuts from the Haro. The south of the
_tahsil_ is partly sandy and partly has a dry gritty or stony soil. Here
the crops are very insecure. The rest of the district is a plateau. The
northern part consists of the _tahsils_ of Fatehjang and Pindigheb
drained by the Soan and its tributary the Sil. The southern is occupied
by _tahsil_ Talagang, a rough plateau with deep ravines and torrents
draining northwards into the Soan. In the valleys of the Sil and Soan
some good crops are raised. The soil of the plateau is very shallow, and
the rainfall being scanty the harvest is often dried up. The chief crops
are wheat and _bajra_. Awans form the bulk of the agricultural
population.
[Sidenote: Area, 5395 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1020 sq. m.
Pop. 341,377;
88 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 359,836
= L23,989.]
~Mianwali~ is one of the largest districts, but has the smallest
population of any except Simla. The Indus has a course of about 180
miles in Mianwali. In the north it forms the boundary between the
Mianwali _tahsil_ and the small Isakhel _tahsil_ on the right bank. In
the south it divides the huge Bhakkar _tahsil_, which is bigger than an
average district, from the Dera Ismail Khan district of the N.W.F.
Province. It is joined from the west by the Kurram, which has a short
course in the south of the Isakhel _tahsil_. The Salt Range extends into
the district, throwing off from its western extremity a spur which runs
north to the Indus opposite Kalabagh. Four tracts may be distinguished,
two large and two small. North and east of the Salt Range is the Khuddar
or ravine country, a little bit of the Awankari or Awan's land, which
occupies a large space in Attock. West of the Indus in the north the
wild and desolate Bhangi-Khel glen with its very scanty and scattered
cultivation runs north to the Kohat Hills. The rest of the district
consists of the wide and flat valley of the Indus and the Thal or
Uplands. In the north the latter includes an area of strong thirsty
loam, but south of the railway it is a huge expanse of sand rising
frequently into hillocks and ridges with some fertile bottoms of better
soil. Except in the north the Thal people used to make their living
almost entirely as shepherds and camel owners. There were scattered
little plots of better soil where wells were sunk, and the laborious and
careful cultivation was and is Dutch in its neatness. Some millets were
grown in the autumn and the sandhills yielded melons. The people have
now learned that it is worth while to gamble with a spring crop of gram,
and this has led to an enormous extension of the cultivated area. But
even now in Mianwali this is a comparatively small fraction of the total
area. There is a small amount of irrigation from wells and in the
neighbourhood of Isakhel from canal cuts from the Kurram. Owing to the
extreme scantiness of the rainfall the riverain depends almost entirely
on the Indus floods, to assist the spread of which a number of
embankments are maintained. Everywhere in Mianwali the areas both of
crops sown and of crops that ripen fluctuate enormously, and much of the
revenue has accordingly been put on a fluctuating basis. The chief crops
are wheat, _bajra_, and gram. Jats[12] are in a great majority
Cis-Indus, but Pathans are important in Isakhel.
[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
[Sidenote: Area, 4791 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1933 sq. m.
Pop. 648,989.
Land Rev.
Rs. 16,96,272
= L113,085.]
~Shahpur~ is also a very large district with the three _tahsils_ of
Bhera, Shahpur, and Sargodha in the Jech Doab, and on the west of the
Jhelam the huge Khushab _tahsil_, which in size exceeds the other three
put together. The principal tribes are Jats Cis-Jhelam, Awans in the
Salt Range, and Jats and Tiwanas in Khushab. The Tiwana Maliks have
large estates on both sides of the river and much local influence. East
of the Jhelam the colonization of the Bar after the opening of the Lower
Jhelam Canal has led to a great increase of population and a vast
extension of the cultivated area, 71 p.c. of which is irrigated. The
part of the district in the Jech Doab consists of the river valleys of
the Chenab and Jhelam, the Utar, and the Bar. The Chenab riverain is
poor, the Jhelam very fertile with good well irrigation. In the north of
the district the Utar, a tract of older alluvium, lies between the
present valley of the Jhelam and the Bar. It has hitherto been largely
irrigated by public and private inundation canals, but this form of
irrigation may be superseded by the excavation of a new distributary
from the Lower Jhelam Canal. Till the opening of that canal the Bar was
a vast grazing area with a little cultivation on scattered wells and in
natural hollows. North of the Kirana Hill the soil is excellent and the
country is now a sheet of cultivation. In the south of the Bar much of
the land is too poor to be worth tillage. The Khushab _tahsil_ consists
of the Jhelam riverain, the Salt Range with some fertile valleys hidden
amid barren hills, the Mohar below the hills with a thirsty soil
dependent on extremely precarious torrent floods, and the Thal, similar
to that described on page 260. The rainfall of the district is scanty
averaging eleven or twelve inches. The chief crops are wheat, _bajra_
and _jowar_, _chari_ and cotton.
[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
[Sidenote: Area,
28,652 sq. m.
Cultd area,
9160 sq. m.
Pop. 3,772,728;
78 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 81,48,103
= L542,872.]
The ~Multan~ division consists of the six districts of the S.W. Panjab,
Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghazi Khan.
Muhammadans are in an overwhelming majority. Wheat and cotton are the
chief crops.
[Sidenote: Area, 4649 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1080 sq. m.
Pop. 535,299;
75 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 434,563
= L28,971.]
The ~Montgomery~ district takes its name from Sir Robert Montgomery
(page 192). It lies in the Bari Doab between the Sutlej and the Ravi. It
consists of the two Ravi _tahsils_ of Gugera and Montgomery, and the two
Sutlej _tahsils_ of Dipalpur and Pakpattan. The trans-Ravi area of the
Montgomery district was transferred to Lyallpur in April, 1913. It is
included in the figures for area and population given in the margin.
The backbone of the district is a high and dry tract known as the Ganji
or Bald Bar. The advent of the Lower Bari Doab Canal will entirely
change the character of this desert. Its south-eastern boundary is a
high bank marking the course of the old bed of the Bias. Below this is
the wide Sutlej valley. The part beyond the influence of river floods
depends largely on the Khanwah and Sohag Para inundation Canals. The
Ravi valley to the north-west of the Bar is naturally fertile and has
good well irrigation. But it has suffered much by the failure of the
Ravi floods.
[Illustration: Fig. 110.]
The peasantry belongs largely to various tribes described vaguely as
Jats. The most important are Kathias, Wattus, and Kharrals. The last
gave trouble in 1857 and were severely punished. The Dipalpur Kambohs
are much more hard-working than these semi-pastoral Jats. There is
already a small canal colony on the Sohag Para Canals and arrangements
for the colonization of the Ganji Bar are now in progress.
[Sidenote: Area, 3156 sq. m.
Cultd area,
2224 sq. m.
Pop. 857,711;
61 p.c. M.
18 p.c. H.
17 p.c. S.
4 p.c. Ch.[13]
Land Rev.
Rs. 37,55,139
= L237,009.]
The ~Lyallpur district~ occupies most of the Sandal Bar, which a quarter
of a century ago was a desert producing scrub jungle and, if rains were
favourable, excellent grass. It was the home of a few nomad graziers.
The area of the district, which was formed in 1904 and added to from
time to time, has been taken out of the Crown Waste of the Jhang and
Montgomery districts on its colonization after the opening of the Lower
Chenab Canal. Some old villages near the present borders of these two
districts have been included. The colonization of the Sandal Bar has
been noticed on pages 139-140. The figures for area and population given
in the margin are for the district as it was before the addition of the
trans-Ravi area of Montgomery.
[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
Lyallpur is divided into the four _tahsils_ of Lyallpur, Jaranwala,
Samundri, and Toba Tek Singh. It consists almost entirely of a flat
plain of fertile loam with fringes of poor land on the eastern, western,
and southern edges. The cultivated area is practically all canal
irrigated. The rainfall of 10 inches does not encourage dry cultivation.
The chief crops are wheat, the oil seed called _toria_, cotton, and
gram. The area of the first much exceeds that of the other three put
together. There is an enormous export of wheat and oil seeds to Karachi.
[Illustration: Fig. 112.]
[Sidenote: Area, 3363 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1214 sq. m.
Pop. 515,526;
82 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 11,67,965
= L77,864.]
~Jhang~ now consists of a wedge of country lying between Lyallpur on the
east and Shahpur, Mianwali, and Muzaffargarh on the west. It contains
the valleys of the Chenab and Jhelam rivers, which unite to the
south-west of the district headquarters and flow as a single stream to
the southern boundary. The valley of the Jhelam is pretty and fertile,
that of the Chenab exactly the reverse. In the west of the district part
of the Thal is included in the boundary. The high land between the river
valleys is much of it poor. Irrigation from the Lower Jhelam Canal is
now available. There is a fringe of high land on the east of the Chenab
valley, partly commanded by the Lower Chenab Canal. Jhang is divided
into the three large _tahsils_ of Jhang, Chiniot, and Shorkot. The
rainfall is about ten inches and the summer long and very hot. The chief
crops are wheat, _jowar_, and _chari_. The Sials are few in number, but
are the tribe that stands highest in rank as representing the former
rulers.
[Illustration: Fig. 113.]
[Sidenote: Area, 6107 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1756 sq. m.
Pop. 814,871;
82 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 13,74,472
= L91,631.]
~Multan~ occupies the south of the Bari Doab. The Ravi flows from east
to west across the north of the district and falls into the Chenab
within its boundary. The Sutlej meets the combined stream of the Jhelam,
Chenab, and Ravi at the south-west corner of the district.
A part of the Kabirwala _tahsil_ lies beyond the Ravi. The other four
_tahsils_ are Multan, Shujabad, Lodhran, and Mailsi. In a very hot
district with an average rainfall of six inches cultivation must depend
on irrigation or river floods. The present sources of irrigation are
inundation canals from the Chenab and Sutlej supplemented by well
irrigation, and the Sidhnai Canal from the Ravi. The district consists
of the river valleys, older alluvial tracts slightly higher than these
valleys, but which can be reached by inundation canals[14], and the high
central Bar, which is a continuation of the Ganji Bar in Montgomery.
Part of this will be served by the new Lower Bari Doab Canal. The
population consists mainly of miscellaneous tribes grouped together
under the name of Jats, the ethnological significance of which in the
Western Panjab is very slight. They are Muhammadans. The district is
well served by railways.
[Sidenote: Area, 6052 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1163 sq. m.
Pop. 569,461;
87 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 873,491
= L58,233.]
~Muzaffargarh~ is with the exception of Kangra the biggest Panjab
district. It forms a large triangle with its apex in the south at the
junction of the Indus and Panjnad. On the west the Indus forms the
boundary for 180 miles. On the east Muzaffargarh has a river boundary
with Bahawalpur and Multan, but, where it marches with Jhang, is
separated from it by the area which that district possesses in the Sind
Sagar Doab. There are four _tahsils_, Leia, Sinanwan, Muzaffargarh, and
Alipur, the first being equal in area to a moderately sized district.
The greater part of Leia and Sinanwan is occupied by the Thal. The
southern tongue of the Thal extends into the Muzaffargarh _tahsil_. The
rest of that district is a heavily inundated or irrigated tract, the
part above flood level being easily reached by inundation canals. Dry
cultivation is impossible with a yearly rainfall of about six inches.
The chief crop is wheat. In the south of the district the people live in
frail grass huts, and when the floods are out transfer themselves and
their scanty belongings to wooden platforms.
[Illustration: Fig. 114.]
[Sidenote: Area, 5325 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1723 sq. m.
Pop. 499,860;
88 p.c. M.
Land Rev.
Rs. 542,473
= L36,165.]
~Dera Ghazi Khan district.~--When the N. W. Frontier Province was
separated from the Panjab, the older province retained all the
trans-Indus country in which Biluches were the predominant tribe. The
Panjab therefore kept Dera Ghazi Khan. It has a river frontage on the
Indus about 230 miles in length and on the west is bounded by the
Suliman Range, part of which is included within the district. The Deputy
Commissioner of Dera Ghazi Khan and the Commissioner of Multan spend
part of the hot weather at Fort Munro. The wide Indus valley is known as
the Sindh. The tract between it and the Hills is the Pachadh. It is
seamed by hill torrents, three of which, the Vehoa, the Sangarh, and the
Kaha, have a thread of water even in the cold season. The heat in summer
is extreme, and the _luh_, a moving current of hot air, claims its human
victims from time to time. The cultivation in the Sindh depends on the
river floods and inundation canals, helped by wells. In the Pachadh dams
are built to divert the water of the torrents into embanked fields. The
cultivated area is recorded as 1723 square miles, but this is enormously
in excess of the cropped areas, for a very large part of the embanked
area is often unsown. The encroachments of the Indus have enforced the
transfer of the district headquarters from Dera Ghazi Khan to a new town
at Choratta. Biluches are the dominant tribe both in numbers and
political importance. They with few exceptions belong to one or other of
the eight organized clans or tumans, Kasranis, Sori Lunds, Khosas,
Lagharis, Tibbi Lunds, Gurchanis, Drishaks, and Mazaris. The most
important clans are Mazaris, Lagharis, and Gurchanis. Care has been
taken to uphold the authority of the chiefs. The Deputy Commissioner is
political officer for such of the independent Biluch tribes across the
administrative frontier as are not included in the Biluchistan Agency.
Regular troops have all been removed from the district. The peace of the
borderland is maintained by a tribal militia under the command of a
British officer.
[Illustration: Fig. 115.]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 8: Some estates lying to the east of the Jamna and belonging
to the United Provinces have recently been added to the enclave.]
[Footnote 9: H. = Hindu, M. = Muhammadan, S. = Sikh.]
[Footnote 10: Not shown in map.]
[Footnote 11: See page 169.]
[Footnote 12: This leading tribe in the Panjab is known as Jat in the
Hindi-speaking Eastern districts and as Jat elsewhere.]
[Footnote 13: Ch.=Christian.]
[Footnote 14: There is a project for improving the water-supply of
inundation canals in the west of the district by building a weir across
the Chenab below its junction with the Jhelam.]
CHAPTER XXVI
THE PANJAB NATIVE STATES
1. _The Phulkian States_
[Sidenote: Area, 7599 sq. m.
Pop. 1,928,724.
Rev.
Rs. 118,00,000
= L786,666.]
~Phulkian States.~--The three Phulkian States of Patiala, Jind, and
Nabha form a political agency under the Panjab Government. They occupy,
with Bahawalpur and Hissar, the bulk of that great wedge of light loam
and sand which Rajputana, physically considered, pushes northwards
almost to the Sutlej. In the Phulkian States this consists of two
tracts, the Powadh and the Jangal Des. The former, which occupies the
north and north-east of their territory, possesses a light fertile loam
soil and a very moderate natural water level, so that well irrigation is
easy. The Jangal Des is a great tract of sandy loam and sand in the
south-west. Water lies too deep for the profitable working of wells, but
the harvests are far less insecure than one would suppose looking to the
scantiness of the rainfall. The soil is wonderfully cool and
drought-resisting. The dry cultivation consists of millets in the
Autumn, and of gram and mixed crops of wheat or barley and gram in the
Spring, harvest. The three states have rather more than a one-third
share in the Sirhind Canal, their shares _inter se_ being Patiala 83.6,
Nabha 8.8, and Jind 7.6. Portions of the Powadh and Jangal Des are
irrigated. In the case of the Powadh there has been in some places over
irrigation considering how near the surface the water table is. The
Nirwana _tahsil_ in Patiala and the part of Jind which lies between
Karnal and Rohtak is a bit of the Bangar tract of the south-eastern
Panjab, with a strong loam soil and a naturally deep water level. The
former receives irrigation from the Sirsa, and the latter from the
Hansi, branch of the Western Jamna Canal. The outlying tracts to the
south of Rohtak and Gurgaon, acquired after the Mutiny, are part of the
dry sandy Rajputana desert, in which the _Kharif_ is the chief harvest,
and the millets and gram the principal crops. In addition Patiala has an
area of 294 square miles of territory immediately below and in the Simla
Hills. The territory of the Phulkian States is scattered and intermixed,
and they have islands in British districts and _vice versa_, a natural
result of their historic origin and development.
[Illustration: Fig. 116. Maharaja of Patiala.]
Phul was the sixth in descent from Baryam, a Sidhu Jat, to whom Babar
gave the _Chaudhrayat_ of the wild territory to the south-west of Delhi,
making him in effect a Lord of the Marches.
_Tree showing relationship of the three Houses_.
Phul
|
+-------+-------------+
Tiloka Rama
+------+------+ |
Gurditta Sukhchen Raja Ala Singh
| | of Patiala
| |
Suratya Raja Gajpat Singh
| of Jind
|
Raja Hamir Singh
of Nabha
The century and more which elapsed between the grant and Phul's death in
1652 were filled with continual fighting with the Bhattis. Phul's second
son Rama obtained from the Governor of Sirhind the _Chaudhrayat_ of the
Jangal Des. When Ahmad Shah defeated the Sikhs near Barnala in 1762,
Rama's son, Ala Singh, was one of his prisoners. He was a chief of such
importance that his conqueror gave him the title of Raja and the right
to coin money. But Ala Singh found it prudent to join next year in the
capture of Sirhind. From the division of territory which followed the
separate existence of the Phulkian States begins. The manner in which
they came in 1809 under British protection has already been related. The
Raja of Patiala was our ally in the Gurkha War in 1814, and received the
Pinjaur _tahsil_. The active loyalty displayed in 1857 was suitably
rewarded by accessions of territory. The right of adoption was
conferred, and special arrangements made to prevent lapse, if
nevertheless the line in any state failed.
[Sidenote: Area, 5412 sq. m.
Cultd area,
4515 sq. m.
Pop. 1,407,659;
40 p.c. H.
38 p.c. S.
22 p.c. M.
Rev.
Rs. 82,00,000
=L546,666.]
~Patiala~ occupies five-sevenths of the Phulkian inheritance The
predominant agricultural tribe is the Jats, over three-fourths of whom
are Sikhs. The cultivated area is four-fifths of the total area. Over
one-fourth of the former is irrigated, 27 p.c. from wells, and the rest
from the two canals. In an area extending with breaks from Simla to the
Rajputana desert the variations of agriculture are of course extreme.
The state is excellently served by railways.
~Nizamats.~--There are five _nizamats_ or districts, Pinjaur, Amargarh,
Karmgarh, Anahadgarh, and Mohindargarh. Their united area is equivalent
to that of two ordinary British districts. The Pinjaur _nizamat_ with
headquarters at Rajpura covers only 825 square miles. Of its four
_tahsils_ Pinjaur contains the submontane and hill tract, part of the
latter being quite close to Simla. The other three _tahsils_ Rajpura,
Bannur, and Ghanaur are in the Powadh. The Amargarh _nizamat_ with an
area of 855 square miles comprises the three _tahsils_ of Fatehgarh,
Sahibgarh, and Amargarh. The first two are rich and fertile well tracts.
Amargarh is in the Jangal Des to the south-west of Sahibgarh. It
receives irrigation from the Kotla branch of the Sirhind Canal. The
Karmgarh _nizamat_ with an area of 1835 square miles contains the four
_tahsils_ of Patiala, Bhawanigarh, Sunam, and Nirwana. The headquarters
are at Bhawanigarh. The first three are partly in the Powadh, and partly
in the Jangal Des. Nirwana is in the Bangar. There is much irrigation
from the Sirhind and Western Jamna Canals. The Anahadgarh _nizamat_ lies
wholly in the Jangal Des. It has an area of 1836 square miles, and is
divided into three _tahsils_, Anahadgarh, Bhikhi, and Govindgarh. The
headquarters are at Barnala or Anahadgarh. The Mohindarpur _nizamat_
lies far away to the south on the borders of Jaipur and Alwar (see map
on page 226). Its area is only 576 miles and it has two _tahsils_,
Mohindargarh or Kanaud and Narnaul. Kanaud is the headquarters.
The history down to 1763 has already been related. Raja Ala Singh died
in 1765 and was succeeded by his grandson Amar Singh (1765-1781), who
was occupied in continual warfare with his brother and his neighbours,
as became a Sikh chieftain of those days. His son, Sahib Singh
(1781-1813), came under British protection in 1809. Karm Singh
(1813-1845), his successor, was our ally in the Gurkha War. Maharaja
Narindar Singh, K.C.S.I. (1845-1862), was a wise and brave man, who gave
manful and most important help in 1857. His son, Maharaja Mohindar Singh
(1862-1876), succeeded at the age of ten and died 14 years later. His
eldest son, Maharaja Rajindar Singh (1876-1900), was only four when he
succeeded and died at the age of 28. Another long minority, that of the
present Maharaja Bhupindar Singh, only came to an end a few years ago.
In the last fifty years Patiala has in consequence of three minorities
been governed, and as a rule successfully governed, for long periods by
Councils of Regency. The State in 1879 sent a contingent of 1100 men to
the Afghan War. It maintains an Imperial Service Force consisting of two
fine regiments of infantry and one of cavalry. Maharaja Rajindar Singh
went with one of these regiments to the Tirah Expedition.
[Sidenote: Area, 1259 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1172 sq. m.
Pop. 248,887;
78 p.c. H. and J.[15]
14 p.c. M.
8 p.c. S.
Rev.
Rs. 19,00,000
= L126,666.]
~Jind.~--A third of the population of Jind consists of Hindu and Sikh
Jats. There are two _nizamats_, Sangrur and Jind, the latter divided
into the _tahsils_ of Jind and Dadri (map on page 226). The Sangrur
villages are interspersed among those of the other Phulkian States, and
form a part of the Jangal Des. Jind is in the Bangar, and Dadri,
separated from Jind by the Rohtak district, is partly in Hariana and
partly in the sandy Rajputana desert. The rainfall varies from 17 inches
at Sangrur to ten inches at Dadri. Sangrur is irrigated by the Sirhind,
and Jind by the Western Jamna, Canal. Dadri is a dry sandy tract, in
which the Autumn millets are the chief crop. The revenue in 1911-12 was
19 _lakhs_ (L126,700). For imperial service Jind keeps up a fine
battalion of infantry 600 strong. The real founder of the state was
Gajpat Singh, who was a chief of great vigour. He conquered Jind and in
1774 deprived his relative, the chief of Nabha, of Sangrur. He died in
1789. His successor, Raja Bhag Singh, was a good ally of the British
Government. He died after a long and successful career in 1819. His son,
Fateh Singh, only survived him by three years. Sangat Singh succeeded to
troublous times and died childless in 1834. His second cousin, Raja
Sarup Singh, was only allowed to inherit the territory acquired by
Gajpat Singh, from whom he derived his claim. But the gallant and
valuable services rendered by Raja Sarup Singh in 1857 enabled him to
enlarge his State by the grant of the Dadri territory and of thirteen
villages near Sangrur. He died in 1864. His son Raghubir Singh
(1864-1887) was a vigorous and successful ruler. He gave loyal help in
the Kuka outbreak and in the Second Afghan War. His grandson, the
present Maharaja Ranbir Singh, K.C.S.I., was only eight when he
succeeded, and Jind was managed by a Council of Regency for a number of
years. Full powers were given to the chief in 1899.
[Illustration: Fig. 117. Maharaja of Jind.]
[Sidenote: Area, 928 sq. m.
Cultd area,
806 sq. m.
Pop. 248,887;
51 p.c. H. and J.
31 p.c. S.
18 p.c. M.
Rev.
Rs. 17,00,000
= L113,300.]
~Nabha~ consists of twelve patches of territory in the north scattered
among the possessions of Patiala, Jind, and Faridkot, and two other
patches in the extreme south on the border of Gurgaon. The northern
section of the state is divided into the eastern _nizamat_ of Amloh in
the Powadh and the western _nizamat_ of Phul in the Jangal Des. Both now
receive irrigation from the Sirhind Canal. The Bawal _nizamat_ is part
of the arid Rajputana desert. Jats, who are mostly Sikhs, constitute 30
p.c. of the population.
The State is well served by railways, Nabha itself being on the
Rajpura-Bhatinda line. The Maharaja maintains a battalion of infantry
for imperial service. Hamir Singh, one of the chiefs who joined in the
capture of Sirhind, may be considered the first Raja. He died in 1783
and was succeeded by his young son, Jaswant Singh. When he grew to
manhood Jaswant Singh proved a very capable chief and succeeded in
aggrandising his State, which he ruled for 57 years. His son, Deoindar
Singh (1840--47), was deposed, as he was considered to have failed to
support the British Government when the Khalsa army crossed the Sutlej
in 1845. A fourth of the Nabha territory was confiscated. Bharpur Singh,
who became chief in 1857, did excellent service at that critical time,
and the Bawal _nizamat_ was his reward. He was succeeded by his brother,
Bhagwan Singh, in 1863. With Bhagwan Singh the line died out in 1871,
but under the provisions of the _sanad_ granted after the Mutiny a
successor was selected from among the Badrukhan chiefs in the person of
the late Maharaja Sir Hira Singh. No choice could have been more happy.
Hira Singh for 40 years ruled his State on old fashioned lines with much
success. Those who had the privilege of his friendship will not soon
forget the alert figure wasted latterly by disease, the gallant bearing,
or the obstinate will of a Sikh chieftain of a type now departed. His
son, Maharaja Ripudaman Singh, succeeded in 1911.
[Illustration: Fig. 118. Maharaja Sir
Hira Singh.]
2. _Other Sikh States_
[Sidenote: Area, 630 sq. m.
Cultd area,
424 sq. m.
Pop. 268,163.
Rev.
Rs. 14,00,000
= L93,333,
exclusive of
Rs. 13,00,000
= L86,666
derived from the
Oudh estates.]
~Kapurthala.~--The main part consists of a strip of territory mostly in
the valley of the Bias, and interposed between that river and Jalandhar.
This is divided into the four _tahsils_ of Bholath, Dhilwan, Kapurthala,
and Sultanpur. There is a small island of territory in Hoshyarpur, and a
much larger one, the Phagwara _tahsil_, projecting southwards from the
border of that district into Jalandhar. Two-thirds of the area is
cultivated and the proportion of high-class crops is large. The chief
agricultural tribes are the Muhammadan Arains and the Jats, most of whom
are Sikhs.
The real founder of the Kapurthala house was Sardar Jassa Singh
Ahluwalia, who in 1763, when Sirhind fell, was the leading Sikh chief in
the Panjab. He captured Kapurthala in 1771 and made it his headquarters,
and died in 1783. A distant relative, Bagh Singh, succeeded. His
successor, Fateh Singh, was a sworn brother of Ranjit Singh, with whom
he exchanged turbans. But an alliance between the weak and the strong is
not free from fears, and in 1826 Fateh Singh, who had large possessions
south of the Sutlej, fled thither and asked the protection of the
British Government. He returned however to Kapurthala in 1827, and the
Maharaja never pushed matters with Fateh Singh to extremities. The
latter died in 1836. His successor, Nihal Singh, was a timid man, and
his failure to support the British in 1845 led to the loss of his
Cis-Sutlej estates. In 1849 he took the English side and was given the
title of Raja. Randhir Singh succeeded in 1852. His conspicuous services
in the Mutiny were rewarded with the grant of estates in Oudh. The
present Maharaja, Sir Jagatjit Singh Bahadur, G.C.S.I., is a grandson of
Randhir Singh. He was a young child when he succeeded in 1877. The State
maintains a battalion of infantry for imperial service.
[Illustration: Fig. 119. Maharaja Sir Jagatjit Singh Bahadur, G.C.S.I.]
[Sidenote: Area, 642 sq. m.
Pop. 130,925.
Rev.
Rs. 11,50,000
= L76,666.]
[Illustration: Fig. 120. Raja Brijindar Singh.]
~Faridkot~ is a small wedge of territory which almost
divides the Ferozepore district in two. The
population is composed of Sikhs 42-1/2, Hindus
and Jains 29, and Musalmans 28-1/2 p.c. Sikh
Jats are the strongest tribe. The country
is flat. In the west it is very sandy, but in the east
the soil is firmer and is
irrigated in part by the Sirhind
Canal. The Chief, like
the Phulkians, is a Sidhu
Barar Jat, and, though not
a descendant of Phul, unites
his line with the Phulkians
further back. The present
Raja, Brijindar Singh, is 17
years of age, and the State
is managed by a Council of
Regency.
[Sidenote: Area, 168 sq.m.
Pop. 55,915.
Rev.
Rs. 221,000
= L14,733.]
~Kalsia~ consists of a number of patches of territory in Ambala and an
enclave in Ferozepore known as Chirak. The founder of the State was one
of the Jats from the Panjab, who swept over Ambala after the capture of
Sirhind in 1763, and carved out petty principalities, of which Kalsia is
the only survivor (page 180). The capital is Chachrauli, eight or nine
miles north-west of Jagadhri. The present Chief, Sardar Ravi Sher Singh,
is a minor.
3. _The Muhammadan States_
[Sidenote: Area,
15,917 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1853 sq. m.
Pop. 780,641;
84 p.c. M.
Rev.
Rs. 35,00,000
= L233,333.]
~Bahawalpur~ is by far the largest of the Panjab States. But the greater
part of it is at present desert, and the population, except in the river
tract, is very sparse. Bahawalpur stretches from Ferozepore on the north
to the Sindh border. It has a river frontage exceeding 300 miles on the
Sutlej, Panjnad, and Indus. The cultivated area in 1903-4 was 1451
square miles, and of this 83 p.c. was irrigated and 10 p.c. flooded. The
rainfall is only five inches and the climate is very hot. South and east
of the rivers is a tract of low land known as the "Sindh," which widens
out to the south. It is partly flooded and partly irrigated by
inundation canals with the help of wells. Palm groves are a conspicuous
feature in the Sindh. Behind it is a great stretch of strong loam or
"_pat_," narrow in the south, but widening out in the north. It is
bounded on the south-east by a wide depression known as the Hakra,
probably at one time the bed of the Sutlej. At present little
cultivation is possible in the _pat_, but there is some hope that a
canal taking out on the right bank of the Sutlej in Ferozepore may bring
the water of that river back to it. South of the Hakra is a huge tract
of sand and sand dunes, known as the Rohi or Cholistan, which is part of
the Rajputana desert. There are three _nizamats_, Minchinabad in the
north, Bahawalpur in the middle, and Khanpur in the south. The capital,
Bahawalpur, is close to the bridge at Adamwahan by which the N.W.
Railway crosses the Sutlej. The ruling family belongs to the Abbasi
Daudpotra clan, and came originally from Sindh. Sadik Muhammad Khan, who
received the title of Nawab from Nadir Shah, when he invaded the Derajat
in 1739, may be considered the real founder of the State. The Nawab
Muhummad Bahawal Khan III, threatened with invasion by Maharaja Ranjit
Singh, made a treaty with the British Government in 1833. He was our
faithful ally in the first Afghan War, and gave valuable help against
Diwan Mulraj in 1848. The next three reigns extending from 1852 to 1866
were brief and troubled. Nawab Sadik Muhummad Khan IV, who succeeded in
1866, was a young child, and for the next thirteen years the State was
managed by Captain Minchin and Captain L. H. Grey as Superintendents.
The young Nawab was installed in 1879, and henceforth ruled with the
help of a Council. In the Afghan War of 1879-1880 Bahawalpur did very
useful service. The Nawab died in 1899. A short minority followed during
which Colonel L. H. Grey again became Superintendent. The young Nawab,
Muhammad Bahawal Khan V, had but a brief reign. He was succeeded by the
present Chief, Nawab Sadik Muhummad Khan V, a child of eight or nine
years. The State is managed by a Council aided by the advice of the
political Agent. From 1903 to 1913, the Agent for the Phulkian States
was in charge, but a separate Agent has recently been appointed for
Bahawalpur and Faridkot. An efficient camel corps is maintained for
imperial service.
[Illustration: Fig. 121. Nawab Sadik Muhammad Khan.]
[Sidenote: Area, 167 sq. m.
Pop. 71,144.
Rev.
Rs. 900,000
= L60,000.]
~Malerkotla~ consists of a strip of territory to the south of the
Ludhiana district. The capital is connected with Ludhiana by railway.
The Nawab keeps up a company of Sappers and Miners for imperial service.
He is an Afghan, and his ancestor held a position of trust under the
Moghal Empire, and became independent on its decline. The independence
of his successor was menaced by Maharaja Ranjit Singh when Malerkotla
came under British protection in 1809.
~Pataudi, Dujana, and Loharu.~--The three little Muhammadan States of
Loharu, Dujana, and Pataudi are relics of the policy which in the
opening years of the nineteenth century sought rigorously to limit our
responsibilities to the west of the Jamna. Together they have an area of
275 square miles, a population of 59,987 persons, and a revenue of Rs.
269,500 (L18,000). The Chief of Loharu, Nawab Amir ud din Ahmad Khan,
K.C.I.E., is a man of distinction.
4. _Hindu Hill States_
[Sidenote: Area, 1200 sq. m.
pop. 181,110.
Rev.
Rs. 500,000
= L33,333.]
~Mandi~ is a tract of mountains and valleys drained by the Bias. With
Suket, with which for many generations it formed one kingdom, it is a
wedge thrust up from the Sutlej between Kangra and Kulu. Three-fifths of
the area is made up of forests and grazing lands. The _deodar_ and blue
pine forests on the Kulu border are valuable. At Guma and Drang an
impure salt, fit for cattle, is extracted from shallow cuttings. A
considerable part of the revenue is derived from the price and duty. The
chiefs are Chandarbansi Rajputs. The direct line came to an end in 1912
with the death of Bhawani Sen, but to prevent lapse the British
Government has chosen as successor a distant relative, Jogindar Singh,
who is still a child.
[Illustration: Fig. 122.]
[Sidenote: Area, 420 sq. m.
Pop. 54,928.
Rev.
Rs. 200,000
= L13,333.]
~Suket~ lies between Mandi and the Sutlej. Its Raja, Ugar Sen, like his
distant relative, the Raja of Mandi, came under British protection in
1846. His great-grandson, Raja Bhim Sen, is the present chief.
[Sidenote: Area, 1198 sq. m.
Pop. 138,520.
Rev.
Rs. 600,000
= L40,000.]
[Illustration: Fig. 123. The late Raja Surindar Bikram Parkash, K.C.S.I.,
of Sirmur.]
~Sirmur~ (~Nahan~) lies to the north of the Ambala district, and
occupies the greater part of the catchment area of the Giri, a tributary
of the Jamna. It is for the most part a mountain tract, the Chor to the
north of the Giri rising to a height of 11,982 feet. The capital, Nahan
(3207 feet), near the southern border is in the Siwalik range. In the
south-east of the State is the rich valley known as the Kiarda Dun,
reclaimed and colonized by Raja Shamsher Parkash. There are valuable
_deodar_ and _sal_ forests. A good road connects Nahan with Barara on
the N.W. Railway. In 1815 the British Government having driven out the
Gurkhas put Fateh Parkash on the throne of his ancestors. His troops
fought on the English side in the first Sikh War. His successors, Raja
Sir Shamsher Parkash, G.C.S.I. (1856-98), and Raja Sir Surindar Bikram
Parkash, K.C.S.I. (1898-1911), managed their State with conspicuous
success. The present Raja, Amar Parkash, is 25 years of age. In the
second Afghan War in 1880, Sirmur sent a contingent to the frontier, and
the Sappers and Miners, which it keeps up for imperial service,
accompanied the Tirah Expedition of 1897.
[Sidenote: Area, 3216 sq. m.
Pop. 135,989.
Rev. 4 _lakhs_
= L26,700.]
~Chamba~ lies to the N. of Kangra from which it is divided by the
Dhauladhar (map, p. 284). The southern and northern parts of the State
are occupied respectively by the basins of the Ravi and the Chandrabhaga
or Chenab. Chamba is a region of lofty mountains with some fertile
valleys in the south and west. Only about one-nineteenth of the area is
cultivated. The snowy range of the Mid-Himalaya separates the Ravi
valley from that of the Chandrabhaga, and the great Zanskar chain with
its outliers occupies the territory beyond the Chenab, where the
rainfall is extremely small and Tibetan conditions prevail. The State
contains fine forests and excellent sport is to be got in its mountains.
There are five _wazarats_ or districts, Brahmaur or Barmaur, Chamba,
Bhattoyat, Chaura, and Pangi.
The authentic history of this Surajbansi Rajput principality goes back
to the seventh century. It came into the British sphere in 1846. During
part of the reign of Raja Sham Singh (1873-1904), the present Raja, Sir
Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., administered the State as Wazir, filling
a difficult position with loyalty and honour. He is a Rajput gentleman
of the best type. The Raja owns the land of the State, but the people
have a permanent tenant right in cultivated land.
[Illustration: Fig. 124. Raja Sir Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E.]
~Simla Hill States.~--The Deputy Commissioner of Simla is political
officer with the title of Superintendent of nineteen, or, including the
tributaries of Bashahr, Keonthal, and Jubbal, of 28 states with a total
area of 6355 square miles, a population of 410,453, and revenues
amounting to a little over ten _lakhs_ (L66,000). The States vary in
size from the patch of four square miles ruled by the Thakur of Bija to
the 388r square miles included in Bashahr. Only four other States have
areas exceeding 125 square miles, namely, Bilaspur (448), Keonthal
(359), Jubbal (320), and Hindur or Nalagarh (256). Excluding feudatories
the revenues vary from Rs. 900 (or a little over L1 a week) in Mangal to
Rs. 190,000 (L12,666) in Bilaspur. The chiefs are all Rajputs, who came
under our protection at the close of the Gurkha War.
The watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna runs through the tract. The range
which forms the watershed of the Sutlej and the Jamna starts from the
Shinka Pass on the south border of Bashahr and passes over Hattu and
Simla. In Bashahr it divides the catchment areas of the Rupin and Pabar
rivers, tributaries of the Tons and therefore of the Jamna, from those
of the Baspa and the Nogli, which are affluents of the Sutlej. West of
Bashahr the chief tributary of the Jamna is the Giri and of the Sutlej
the Gambhar, which rises near Kasauli. In the east Bashahr has a large
area north of the Sutlej drained by its tributary the Spiti and smaller
streams. In the centre the Sutlej is the northern boundary of the Simla
Hill States. In the west Bilaspur extends across that river. The east of
Bashahr is entirely in the Sutlej basin.
[Sidenote: Area, 448 sq. m.
Pop. 93,107.
Rev. Rs. 190,000
= L12,666.]
~Bilaspur.~--This is true also of Bilaspur or Kahlur (map, p. 284),
which has territory on both banks of the river. The capital, Bilaspur,
is on the left bank only 1455 feet above sea level. The present Raja
Bije Chand, C.S.I., succeeded in 1889.
[Sidenote: Area, 3881 sq. m.
Pop. 93,203.
Rev. Rs. 95,000
= L6233.]
~Bashahr.~--The chain which forms the watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna
rises from about 12,000 feet at Hattu in the west to nearly 20,000 feet
on the Tibet border. Two peaks in the chain exceed 20,000 feet. Further
north Raldang to the east of Chini is 21,250 feet high, and in the
north-east on the Tibet border there are two giants about 1000 feet
higher. Generally speaking the Sutlej runs in a deep gorge but at Chini
and Sarahan the valley widens out. The main valley of the Pabar is not
so narrow as that of the Sutlej, while the side valleys descend in easy
slopes to the river beds. The Baspa has a course of 35 miles. In the
last ten miles it falls 2000 feet and is hemmed in by steep mountains.
Above this gorge the Baspa valley is four or five miles wide and
consists of a succession of plateaux rising one above the other from the
river's banks. Bashahr is divided into two parts, Bashahr proper and
Kunawar. The latter occupies the Sutlej valley in the north-east of the
State. It covers an area of about 1730 square miles and is very sparsely
peopled. In the north of Kunawar the predominant racial type is
Mongoloid and the religion is Buddhism. The capital of Bashahr, Rampur,
on the left bank of the Sutlej is at an elevation of 3300 feet. The
Gurkhas never succeeded in conquering Kunawar. They occupied Bashahr,
but in 1815 the British Government restored the authority of the Raja.
The present chief, Shamsher Singh, is an old man, who succeeded as long
ago as 1850. He is incapable of managing the State and an English
officer is at present in charge.
[Illustration: Fig. 125. Bashahr.]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 15: J.=Jain.]
CHAPTER XXVII
THE NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE
1. _Districts_
~The Province.~--The N. W. F. Province consists of five British
districts, Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Kohat, Peshawar, and Hazara with a
total area of 13,193 square miles, of which rather less than one-third
is cultivated. Of the cultivated area 70 p.c. depends solely on the
rainfall. In addition the Chief Commissioner as Agent to the Governor
General controls beyond the administrative boundary territory occupied
by independent tribes, which covers approximately an area of 25,500
square miles. In 1911 the population of British districts was 2,196,933
and that of tribal territory is estimated to exceed 1,600,000. In the
districts 93 persons in every hundred profess the creed of Islam and
over 38 p.c. are Pathans.
[Sidenote: Area, 3780 sq. m.
Cultd area,
851 sq. m.
Pop. 256,120.
Land Rev.
Rs. 306,240
= L20,416.]
~Dera Ismail Khan~ lies to the north of Dera Ghazi Khan and is very
similar to it in its physical features. It is divided into the three
_tahsils_ of Tank, Dera Ismail Khan, and Kulachi. It has a long river
frontage on the west, and is bounded on the east by the Suliman Range.
The Kachchhi of Dera Ismail Khan corresponds to the Sindh of Dera Ghazi
Khan, but is much narrower and is not served by inundation canals,
except in the extreme north, where the Paharpur Canal has recently been
dug. It depends on floods and wells. The Daman or "Skirt" of the hills
is like the Pachadh of Dera Ghazi Khan a broad expanse of strong clayey
loam or _pat_ seamed by torrents and cultivated by means of dams and
embanked fields. The climate is intensely hot in summer, and the average
rainfall only amounts to ten inches. Between one-fourth and one-fifth of
the area is cultivated. The Pachadh is a camel-breeding tract.
[Illustration: Fig. 126. Sir Harold Deane.]
[Illustration: Fig. 127. NORTH-WEST FRONTIER-PROVINCE]
[Illustration: Fig. 128. Map of Dera Ismail Khan with trans-border
territory of Largha Sheranis and Ustaranas.]
Pathans predominate in the Daman and Jats in the Kachchhi. The
Bhittannis in the north of the district are an interesting little tribe.
The hill section lies outside our administrative border, but like the
Largha Sheranis in the south are under the political control of the
Deputy Commissioner. A good metalled road, on which there is a _tonga_
service, runs northwards from Dera Ismail Khan to Bannu.
[Sidenote: Area, 1641 sq. m.
Cultd area,
818 sq. m.
Pop. 250,086.
Land Rev.
Rs. 304,004
= L20,267.]
[Illustration: Fig. 129.]
~Bannu.~--The small Bannu district occupies a basin surrounded by hills
and drained by the Kurram and its affluent, the Tochi. It is cut off
from the Indus by the Isakhel _tahsil_ of Mianwali and by a horn of the
Dera Ismail Khan district. Bannu is now connected with Kalabagh in
Mianwali by a narrow gauge railway. An extension of this line from Laki
to Tank in the Dera Ismail Khan district has been sanctioned. There are
two _tahsils_, Bannu and Marwat. The cultivated area is about one-half
of the total area. About 30 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by
irrigation from small canals taking out of the streams. Most of the
irrigation is in the Bannu _tahsil_. The greater part of Marwat is a dry
sandy tract yielding in favourable seasons large crops of gram. But the
harvests on unirrigated land are precarious, for the annual rainfall is
only about 12 inches. The irrigated land in Bannu is heavily manured and
is often double-cropped. Wheat accounts for nearly half of the whole
crops of the district. The Marwats are a frank manly race of good
physique. The Bannuchis are hard-working, but centuries of plodding toil
on a wet soil has spoiled their bodily development, and had its share in
imparting to their character qualities the reverse of admirable. The
Deputy Commissioner has also political charge of some 17,884 tribesmen
living across the border. There are good metalled roads to Dera Ismail
Khan and Kohat, and also one on the Tochi route.
[Sidenote: Area, 2973 sq. m.
Cultd area,
512 sq. m.
Pop. 222,690.
Land Rev.
Rs. 275,462
= L18,364.]
~Kohat~ is a large district, but most of it is unfit for tillage and
only one-sixth is actually cultivated. The chief crops are wheat, 44,
and _bajra_, 26 p.c. The district stretches east and west for 100 miles
from Khushalgarh on the Indus to Thal at the mouth of the Kurram valley.
The two places are now connected by a railway which passes through the
district headquarters at Kohat close to the northern border. There are
three _tahsils_, Kohat, Hangu, and Teri, the last a wild tract of bare
hills and ravines occupying the south of the district and covering more
than half its area. Two small streams, the Kohat Toi and the Teri Toi,
drain into the Indus. The rainfall is fair, but very capricious. The
cold weather lasts long and the chill winds that blow during part of it
are very trying. The chief tribes are the Bangash Pathans of Hangu and
the Khattak Pathans of Teri. The Khan of Teri is head of the Khattaks, a
manly race which sends many soldiers to our army. He enjoys the revenue
of the _tahsil_ subject to a quit rent of Rs. 20,000.
~Hangu~ contains in Upper and Lower Miranzai the most fertile land in
the district, but the culturable area of the _tahsil_ is small and only
one-tenth of it is under the plough. Perennial streams run through the
Miranzai valleys, and the neighbouring hills support large flocks of
sheep and goats. Kohat contains a number of salt quarries, the most
important being at Bahadur Khel near the Bannu border. The Thal
subdivision consisting of the Hangu _tahsil_ is in charge of an
Assistant Commissioner who manages our political relations with
transfrontier tribes living west of Fort Lockhart on the Samana Range.
The Deputy Commissioner is in direct charge of the Pass Afridis and the
Jowakis and Orakzais in the neighbourhood of Kohat. He and his Assistant
between them look after our relations with 144,000 trans-border Pathans.
The Samana Rifles, one of the useful irregular corps which keep the
peace of the Borderland, have their headquarters at Hangu.
[Illustration: Fig. 130.]
[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
[Sidenote: Area, 2611 sq. m.
Cultd area,
1398 sq. m.
Pop. 865,000
Land Rev
Rs. 11,37,504
= L75,834.]
~Peshawar~ is a large basin encircled by hills. The gorge of the Indus
separates it from Attock and Hazara. The basin is drained by the Kabul
river, whose chief affluents in Peshawar are the Swat and the Bara. The
district is divided into the five _tahsils_ of Peshawar, Charsadda,
Naushahra, Mardan, and Swabi. The last two form the Mardan subdivision.
Nearly 40 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by irrigation mainly from
canals large and small. The most important are the Lower Swat, the Kabul
River, and the Bara River, Canals. The irrigated area will soon be much
increased by the opening of the Upper Swat Canal. The cold weather
climate is on the whole pleasant, though too severe in December and
January. The three months from August to October are a very unhealthy
time. The soil except in the stony lands near the hills is a fertile
loam. The cold weather rainfall is good, and the Spring harvest is by
far the more important of the two. Wheat is the chief crop. Half of the
people are Pathans, the rest are known generically as Hindkis. The
principal Hindki tribe is that of the Awans. Besides managing his own
people the Deputy Commissioner has to supervise our relations with
240,000 independent tribesmen across the border. The Assistant
Commissioner at Mardan, where the Corps of Guides is stationed, is in
charge of our dealings with the men of Buner and the Yusafzai border.
The N.W. Railway runs past the city of Peshawar to Jamrud, and there is
a branch line from Naushahra to Dargai at the foot of the Malakand Pass.
[Sidenote: Area, 2858 sq. m.
Cultd area,
673 sq. m.
Pop. 603,028.
Land Rev.
Rs. 512,897
= L34,193.]
[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
~Hazara~ is a typical montane and submontane district with a copious
rainfall and a good climate. It has every kind of cultivation from
narrow terraced _kalsi_ fields built laboriously up steep mountain
slopes to very rich lands watered by canal cuts from the Dor or Haro.
Hazara is divided into three _tahsils_, Haripur, Abbottabad, and
Mansehra. Between a fourth and a fifth of this area is culturable and
cultivated. In this crowded district the words are synonymous. The above
figure does not include the 204 square miles of Feudal Tanawal. The
rainfall is copious and the crops generally speaking secure. The
principal are maize 42 and wheat 25 p.c. Hazara was part of the
territory made over to Raja Gulab Singh in 1846, but he handed it back
in exchange for some districts near Jammu. The maintenance of British
authority in Hazara in face of great odds by the Deputy Commissioner,
Captain James Abbott, during the Second Sikh War is a bright page in
Panjab history, honourable alike to himself and his faithful local
allies. The population is as mixed as the soils. Pathans are numerous,
but they are split up into small tribes. The Swatis of Mansehra are the
most important section. After Pathans Gujars and Awans are the chief
tribes. The Gakkhars, though few in number, hold much land and a
dominant position in the Khanpur tract on the Rawalpindi border. The
Deputy Commissioner is also responsible for our relations with 98,000
trans-border tribesmen. The district is a wedge interposed between
Kashmir on the east and Peshawar and the tribal territory north of
Peshawar on the west. The Indus becomes the border about eight miles to
the north of Amb, and the district consists mainly of the areas drained
by its tributaries the Unhar, Siran, Dor, and Haro. On the eastern side
the Jhelam is the boundary with Kashmir from Kohala to a point below
Domel, where the Kunhar meets it. Thence the Kunhar is the boundary to
near Garhi Habibullah. To the south of Garhi the watershed of the Kunhar
and Jhelam is close to these rivers and the country is very rough and
poor. West of Garhi it is represented by the chain which separates the
Kunhar and Siran Valleys and ends on the frontier at Musa ka Musalla
(13,378 feet). This chain includes one peak over 17,000 feet, Mali ka
Parvat, which is the highest in the district. The Kunhar rises at the
top of the Kagan Glen, where it has a course of about 100 miles to
Balakot. Here the glen ends, for the fall between Balakot and Garhi
Habibullah is comparatively small. There is a good mule road from Garhi
Habibullah to the Babusar Pass at the top of the Kagan Glen, and beyond
it to Chilas. There are rest-houses, some very small, at each stage from
Balakot to Chilas. The Kagan is a beautiful mountain glen. At places the
narrow road looks sheer down on the river hundreds of feet below,
rushing through a narrow gorge with the logs from the _deodar_ forests
tossing on the surface, and the sensation, it must be confessed, is not
wholly pleasant. But again it passes close to some quiet pretty stretch
of this same Kunhar. There are side glens, one of which opposite Naran
contains the beautiful Safarmulk Lake. Near the top of the main glen the
Lulusar Lake at a height of 11,167 feet and with an average depth of 150
feet is passed on the left. In the lower part of the glen much maize is
grown. As one ascends almost the last crop to be seen is a coarse barley
sown in June and reaped in August. Where the trees and the crops end the
rich grass pastures begin. Kagan covers between one-third and
one-fourth of the whole district. The Siran flows through the beautiful
Bhogarmang Glen, at the foot of which it receives from the west the
drainage of the Konsh Glen. Forcing its way through the rough Tanawal
hills, it leaves Feudal Tanawal and Badhnak on its right, and finally
after its junction with the Dor flows round the north of the Gandgarh
Range and joins the Indus below Torbela. The bare Gandgarh Hills run
south from Torbela parallel with the Indus. The Dor rises in the hills
to the south of Abbottabad and drains the Haripur plain. A range of
rough hills divides the Dor valley from that of the Haro, which again is
separated from Rawalpindi by the Khanpur Range. To the west of the Siran
the Unhar flows through Agror and Feudal Tanawal, and joins the Indus a
little above Amb. Irrigation cuts are taken from all these streams, and
the irrigated cultivation is often of a very high character. The best
cultivation of the district is in the Haripur plain and the much smaller
Orash and Pakhli plains and in the Haro valley. There is much
unirrigated cultivation in the first, and it is generally secure except
in the dry tract in the south-west traversed by the new railway from
Sarai Kala. The little Orash plain below Abbottabad is famous for its
maize and the Pakhli plain for its rice.
Feudal Tanawal is a very rough hilly country between the Siran on the
east and the Black Mountain and the river Indus on the west. It is the
appanage of the Khans of Amb and Phulra.
North of Feudal Tanawal is Agror. In 1891 the rights of the last Khan
were declared forfeit for abetment of raids by trans-bordermen.
There are fine forests in Hazara, but unfortunately the _deodar_ is
confined to the Kagan Glen and the Upper Siran. Nathiagali, the summer
headquarters of the Chief Commissioner, is in the Dungagali Range. The
Serai Kala-Srinagar railway will run through Hazara. There is a good
mule road from Murree to Abbottabad through the Galis.
2. _Tribal Territory_
[Illustration: Fig. 133. Sir George Roos Keppel.]
Feudal Tanawal mentioned above occupies the southern corner of the tract
of independent tribal territory lying between the Hazara border and the
Indus. North of Tanawal on the left bank of the river a long narrow
chain known as the Black Mountain rises in its highest peaks to a height
of nearly 10,000 feet. The western slopes are occupied by Hasanzais,
Akazais, and Chagarzais, who are Pathans belonging to the great
Yusafzai clan, and these three sections also own lands on the right bank
of the Indus. They have been very troublesome neighbours to the British
Government. The eastern slopes of the Black Mountain are occupied by
Saiyyids and Swatis, and the latter also hold the glens lying further
north, the chief of which is Allai.
[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
The mountainous tract on the Peshawar border lying to the west of
Tanawal and the territory of the Black Mountain tribes formed part of
the ancient Udyana, and its archaeological remains are of much interest.
It is drained by the Barandu, a tributary of the Indus. Its people are
mainly Yusafzai Pathans, the principal section being the Bunerwals.
These last bear a good character for honesty and courage, but are slaves
to the teachings of their _mullas_. The Yusafzais have been bad
neighbours. The origin of the trouble is of old standing, dating back to
the welcome given by the tribesmen in 1824 to a band of Hindustani
fanatics, whose leader was Saiyyid Ahmad Shah of Bareilly. Their
headquarters, first at Sitana and afterwards at Malka, became Caves of
Adullam for political refugees and escaped criminals, and their
favourite pastime was the kidnapping of Hindu shopkeepers. In 1863 a
strong punitive expedition under Sir Neville Chamberlain suffered heavy
losses before it succeeded in occupying the Ambela Pass. The door being
forced the Yusafzais themselves destroyed Malka as a pledge of their
submission. Our political relations with the Yusafzais are managed by
the Assistant Commissioner at Mardan.
The rest of the tribal territory between the Peshawar district and the
Hindu Kush is included in the Dir, Swat, and Chitral political agency.
It is a region of mountains and valleys drained by the Swat, Panjkora,
and Chitral or Yarkhun rivers, all three affluents of the Kabul river.
Six tracts are included in the Agency.
(_a_) ~Swat.~--A railway now runs from Naushahra in the Peshawar district
to Dargai, which lies at the foot of the Malakand, a little beyond our
administrative boundary. An old Buddhist road crosses the pass and
descends on the far side into Swat. We have a military post at Chakdarra
on the Swat river, and a military road passing through Dir connects
Chakdarra with Kila Drosh in Chitral. Most of the Swatis, who are
Yusafzais of the Akozai section, occupy a rich valley above 70 miles in
length watered by the Swat river above its junction with the Panjkora.
Rice is extensively grown, and a malarious environment has affected the
physique and the character of the people. The Swati is priest-ridden and
treacherous. Even his courage has been denied, probably unjustly. Swati
fanaticism has been a source of much trouble on the Peshawar border. The
last serious outbreak was in 1897, when a determined, but unsuccessful,
attack was made on our posts at Chakdarra and the Malakand Pass. The
Swatis are Yusafzai Pathans of the Akozai clan, and are divided into
five sections, one of which is known as Ranizai.
(_b_) ~Sam Ranizai.~--A small tract between the Peshawar border and the
hills is occupied by the Sam Ranizais, who were formerly servants and
tenants of the Ranizais, but are now independent.
(_c_) ~Utman Khel.~--The country of the Utman Khels begins where the
Peshawar boundary turns to the south. This tribe occupies the tract on
both sides of the Swat river to the west of Swat and Sam Ranizai. On the
south-west the Swat river divides the Utman Khels from the Mohmands.
Their country is very barren, but a good many of them cultivate land in
the Peshawar district. The Utman Khels are quite independent of the
surrounding tribes and have been troublesome neighbours to ourselves.
(_d_) ~Bajaur.~--Bajaur is a very mountainous tract lying to the
north-west of the Utman Khel country and between it and the Durand line.
It includes four valleys, through which flow the Rud river and its
affluents with the exception of that known as Jandol. The valley of the
last is now included in Dir. The Rud, also known as the Bajaur, is a
tributary of the Panjkora. The people consist mainly of Mamunds and
other sections of the Tarkanri clan, which is related to the Yusafzais.
They own a very nominal allegiance to the Khan of Nawagai, who is
recognised as the hereditary head of the Tarkanris. They manage their
affairs in quasi-republican fashion through a council consisting of the
particular party which for the time being has got the upper hand.
(_e_) ~Dir.~--Dir is the mountainous country drained by the Panjkora and
its tributaries, to the north of its junction with the Rud river in
Bajaur. It is separated from Chitral by the Uchiri Range, which forms
the watershed of the Panjkora and Kunar rivers. The military road to
Kila Drosh crosses this chain by the Lowari Pass at a height of 10,200
feet. The people of Dir are mostly Yusafzais, relations of the Swatis,
whom they much resemble in character. They pay one-tenth of their
produce to their overlord, the Khan of Dir, when he is strong enough to
take it. The higher parts of the country have a good climate and contain
fine _deodar_ forests. The Khan derives much of his income from the
export of timber, which is floated down the Panjkora and Swat rivers.
(_f_) ~Chitral.~--The Pathan country ends at the Lowari Pass. Beyond,
right up to the main axis of the Hindu Kush, is Chitral. It comprises
the basin of the Yarkhun or Chitral river from its distant source in the
Shawar Shur glacier to Arnawai, where it receives from the west the
waters of the Bashgul, and is thenceforth known as the Kunar. Its
western boundary is the Durand line, which follows a lofty chain
sometimes called the Kafiristan range. Another great spur of the Hindu
Kush known as the Shandur range divides Chitral on the east from the
basin of the Yasin river and the territories included in the Gilgit
Agency (see Chapter XXVIII). Chitral is a fine country with a few
fertile valleys, good forests below 11,000 feet, and splendid, if
desolate, mountains in the higher ranges. The Chitralis are a quiet
pleasure-loving people, fond of children and of dancing, hawking, and
polo. They are no cowards and no fanatics, but have little regard for
truth or good faith. The common language is Khowar (see page 112). The
chief, known as the Mehtar, has his headquarters at Chitral, a large
village on the river of the same name. It is dominated at a distance by
the great snow peak of Tirach Mir (see page 22). The British garrison is
stationed at Kila Drosh on the river bank about halfway between Chitral
and the Lowari Pass[16].
[Illustration: Fig. 135.]
~Mohmands and Mallagoris.~--South of the Utman Khel country and north of
the Khaibar are the rugged and barren hills held by that part of the
Mohmand tribe which lives inside the Durand line. The clan can muster
about 20,000 fighting men and is as convenient a neighbour as a nest of
hornets. The southern edge of the tract, where it abuts on the Khaibar,
is held by the little Mallagori tribe, which is independent of the
Mohmands. Their country is important strategically because a route
passes through it by which the Khaibar can be outflanked. It is included
in the charge of the Political Agent for the Khaibar.
~Afridis.~--The pass and the tract lying to the south of it including the
Bazar valley and part of Tirah are the home of the six sections of the
Pass Afridis, the most important being the Zakha Khel, whose winter home
is in the Khaibar and the Bazar valley, a barren glen hemmed in by
barren hills, the entrance to which is not far from Ali Masjid. Its
elevation is 3000 to 4000 feet. The valleys in Tirah proper, where the
Pass Afridis for the most part spend the summer, are two or three
thousand feet higher. When the snow melts there is excellent pasturage.
The climate is pleasant in summer, but bitterly cold in winter. The Bara
river with its affluents drains the glens of Tirah. The Aka Khel
Afridis, who have no share in the Pass allowances, own a good dear of
land in the lower Bara valley and winter in the adjoining hills. The
fighting strength of the above seven sections may be put at 21,000. When
they have been able to unite they have shown themselves formidable
enemies, for they are a strong and manly race, and they inhabit a very
difficult country[17]. But the Afridi clan is torn by dissensions. Blood
feuds divide house from house, and the sections are constantly at feud
one with another. Apart from other causes of quarrel there is the
standing division into two great factions, Gar and Samil, which prevails
among Afridis and Orakzais. Afridis enlist freely in our regiments and
in the Khaibar Rifles, and have proved themselves excellent soldiers.
The eighth section of the Afridis, the Adam Khel, who hold the Kohat
Pass and the adjoining hills, have very little connection with the rest
of the clan. The Jowakis, against whom an expedition had to be sent in
the cold weather of 1877-78, are a sub-section of the Adam Khel.
[Illustration: Fig. 136. Khaibar Rifles.]
~Orakzais, Chamkannis, and Zaimukhts.~--The Orakzais, who in numbers are
even stronger than the Pass and Aka Khel Afridis, occupy the south of
Tirah, the Samana Range on the border of Kohat, and the valley of the
Khanki river. The tribal territory extends westwards as far as the
Khurmana, a tributary of the Kurram. The Orakzais do some trade and Sikh
_banias_ and artizans are to be found in some of their villages. The
clan is honey-combed with feuds. North-west of the Orakzais beyond the
Khurmana are the Chamkannis, and on the south is a small tribe of
vigorous mountaineers called Zaimukhts. One of these Zaimukhts, Sarwar
Khan, nicknamed Chikai, was a notorious frontier robber, and a person of
considerable importance on the border till his death in 1903.
~The Kurram Valley.~--The Kurram Valley, which is drained by the Kurram
river and its affluents, lies to the south of the lofty Safed Koh range,
and reaches from Thal in Kohat to the Peiwar Kotal on the borders of
Afghan Khost. It has an area of nearly 1300 square miles and in 1911 the
population was estimated at 60,941 souls. Though under British
administration, it does not form a part of any British district. The
people are Pathans of various clans, the predominant element being the
Turis, who are Shias by religion and probably of Turkish origin. It was
at their request that the valley was annexed in 1892. The political
agent has his headquarters at Parachinar in Upper Kurram, which is
divided from Lower Kurram by a spur of the Khost hills, through which
the river has cut a passage. Such part of the Indian penal law as is
suitable has been introduced, and civil rights are governed by the
customary law of the Turis. A complete record of rights in land and
water has been framed, and the land revenue demand is 88,000 rupees
(L5889). Upper Kurram is a wide and fertile valley set in a frame of
pine-clad hills. It is not fully cultivated, but has great
possibilities, especially in the matter of fruit growing. The snowfall
is heavy in winter, but the summer climate is excellent. Lower Kurram is
a poor and narrow glen unpleasantly hot and cold according to the season
of the year. Parachinar is connected with the railhead at Thal by a
good _tonga_ road.
~Waziristan.~--The country of the Darwesh Khel and Mahsud Wazirs extends
from the Kurram valley to the Gomal river. It is divided into the North
Waziristan (2300 square miles) and the South Waziristan (2700 square
miles) Agencies. North Waziristan consists of four valleys and some
barren plateaux. The principal valley is that of Daur (700 square miles)
drained by the Tochi. In 1894 the Dauris sought refuge from Darwesh Khel
inroads by asking for British administration. In the eyes of the Darwesh
Khel they are a race of clodhoppers. Their sole virtue consists in
patient spade industry in the stiff rich soil of their valley, their
vices are gross, and their fanaticism is extreme. The political agent's
headquarters are at Miram Shah. South Waziristan is the home of the
troublesome Mahsuds, who can muster 11,000 fighting men. But parts of
the country, e.g. the Wana plain, are held by the Darwesh Khel. Much of
South Waziristan consists of bare hills and valleys and stony plains
scored with torrents, which are dry most of the year. The streams are
salt. Part of the hinterland is however a more inviting tract with
grassy uplands and hills clad with oak, pine, and _deodar_. Wana, where
the political agent has his headquarters, was occupied on the invitation
of the Darwesh Khel in 1894.
~Sheranis.~--The Sherani country stretches along the Dera Ismail Khan
border from the Gomal to the Vihoa torrent. The Largha or lower part has
been under direct administration since 1899, the Upper part belongs to
the Biluchistan Agency.
~Tribal Militias.~--In the greater part of India beyond the border there
is no British administration. Respect for our authority and the peace of
the roads are upheld, and raiding on British territory is restrained,
by irregular forces raised from among the tribesmen. There are Hunza and
Nagar levies, Chitral and Dir levies, Khaibar Rifles, Samana Rifles, and
Kurram, North Waziristan, and South Waziristan militias.
[Illustration: Fig. 137. North Waziristan Militia and Border Post.]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 16: For recent history see page 196.]
[Footnote 17: See page 196.]
CHAPTER XXVIII
KASHMIR AND JAMMU
~Kashmir.~--Some account has already been given of the topography and
scenery of the wide territory, covering an area about equal to that of
the Panjab less the Ambala division, ruled by the Maharaja of Kashmir
and Jammu. The population, races, languages, and religions have been
referred to in Chapters IX and X.
~Modern history.~--Some mention has been made of the early history of
Kashmir (pages 165, 166, 172, 173). Even the hard Sikh rule was a relief
to a country which had felt the tyranny of the Durani governors who
succeeded the Moghals. Under the latter small kingships had survived in
the Jammu hills, but the Jammuwal Rajas met at Ranjit Singh's hands the
same fate as the Kangra Rajas. Three cadets of the Jammu royal house,
the brothers Dhian Singh, Suchet Singh, and Gulab Singh, were great men
at his court. In 1820 he made the last Raja of Jammu. Gulab Singh was a
man fit for large designs. In 20 years he had made himself master of
Bhadrawah, Kishtwar, Ladakh, and Baltistan, and held the casket which
enclosed the jewel of Kashmir. He acquired the jewel itself for 75 lakhs
by treaty with the British at the close of the first Sikh war.
Excluding a large but little-known and almost uninhabited tract beyond
the Muztagh and Karakoram mountains, the drainage of which is northwards
into Central Asia, the country consists of the valleys of the Chenab,
Jhelam, and Indus, that of the last amounting to three-fourths of the
whole. There is a trifling area to the west of Jammu, which contains the
head-waters of small streams which find their way into the Ravi.
[Illustration: Fig. 138. Maharaja of Kashmir.]
[Illustration: Fig. 139. Sketch Map of Chenab and Jhelam Valleys (Jammu
and Kashmir).]
~Divisions.~--The following broad divisions may be recognised:
1. Chenab Valley (_a_) Plain and Kandi or Low Hills.
(_b_) Uplands of Kishtwar and Bhadrawah.
2. Jhelam Valley (_a_) Vale of Kashmir with adjoining glens and hills.
(_b_) Gorge below Baramula and Kishnganga Valley.
3. Indus Valley (_a_) Ladakh including Zanskar and Rupshu.
(_b_) Baltistan.
(_c_) Astor and Gilgit.
~Chenab Valley.~--(_a_) _Plain and Kandi._ This tract extends from Mirpur
on the Jhelam to Kathua near the Ravi and close to the head-works of the
Upper Bari Doab Canal at Madhopur. It is coterminous with the Panjab
districts of Jhelam, Gujrat, Sialkot, and Gurdaspur, and comprises four
of the five districts of the Jammu Province, Mirpur, Riasi, Jammu, and
Jasrota, and a part of the fifth, Udhampur. The plain is moist and
unhealthy. The rough country behind with a stony and thirsty red soil
covered in its natural state with _garna_ (Carissa spinarum), _sanatan_
(Dodonaea viscosa), and _bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica) does not suffer in
this respect. The chief crops of the Kandi are wheat, barley, and rape
in the spring, and maize and _bajra_ in the autumn, harvest. Behind the
Kandi is a higher and better tract, including Naoshera, with wide
valleys, in which maize replaces _bajra_.
(_b_) _Uplands._ The greater part of the Upper Chenab Valley is occupied
by Kishtwar and _Jagir_ Bhadrawah. The rainfall is heavy and there is
copious irrigation from _kuhls_ (page 142), but elevation and rapid
drainage make the climate healthy. In the upper parts snow and cold
winds sometimes prevent the ripening of the crops. The poppy is grown in
Kishtwar and Bhadrawah. Kishtwar is a part of the Udhampur district.
~Jhelam Valley.~--(_a_) _Vale of Kashmir with adjoining glens and
mountains._ This first division of the Jhelam Valley extends from the
source above Vernag to Baramula, and embraces not only the Vale of
Kashmir, over 80 miles long and from 20 to 25 miles in breadth, but the
glens which drain into it and the mountains that surround it. It
therefore includes cultivation of all sorts from rich irrigated rice
fields to narrow plots terraced up mountain slopes on which buckwheat
and the beardless Tibetan barley are grown. The administrative divisions
are the _wazarat_ or district of South Kashmir and the southern part of
North Kashmir. The central valley has an elevation of 6000 feet. It was
undoubtedly once a lake bed. Shelving fan-shaped "_karewas_" spread out
into it from the bases of the hills. The object of the Kashmiri is to
raise as much rice as he possibly can on the alluvium of his valley and
on the rich soil deposited on the banks of mountain streams. Manure and
facilities for irrigation exist in abundance, and full use is made of
them in the cultivation of the favourite crop. _Kangni_ takes the place
of rice in many fields if there is any deficiency of water. On reclaimed
swamps near the Jhelam heavy crops of maize are raised. The tillage for
wheat and barley is as careless as that for rice is careful. The
cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) on _karewas_ is famous, but the
area is now limited, as the starving people ate up the bulbs in the
great famine of 1877 and recovery is slow. Saffron is used as a pigment
for the sectarian marks on the forehead of the orthodox Hindu and also
as a condiment. The little floating vegetable gardens on the Dal lake
are a very curious feature. The "_demb_" lands on the borders of the
same lake are a rich field for the market gardener's art. He fences a
bit of land with willows, and deposits on it weeds and mud from the lake
bed. He is of the boatman or Hanz caste, whose reputation is by no means
high, and can himself convey by water his vegetables and fruits to the
Srinagar market. The production of fruit in Kashmir is very large, and
the extension of the railway to Srinagar should lead to much improvement
in the quality and in the extent of the trade. It may also improve the
prospects of sericulture.
[Illustration: Fig. 140. Takht i Suliman in Winter.]
(_b_) _Jhelam Gorge and Valley of Kishnganga._ The Jhelam gorge below
Baramula is narrow and the cultivation is usually terraced. The
Kishnganga joins the Jhelam near Muzaffarabad. The Muzaffarabad district
includes the Jhelam gorge and the lower part of the valley of the
Kishnganga. The upper part is in the Uttarmachhipura _tahsil_ of the
district of North Kashmir.
~Indus Valley.~--(_a_) _Ladakh including Zanskar and Rupshu._ Some
description of Ladakh and its scenery has already been given in Chapter
II. It may be divided into Rupshu, Zanskar, and Ladakh proper with Leh
as its centre. Rupshu in the south-east is a country of great brackish
lakes in no part less than 13,500 feet above sea level. At such a height
cultivation must be very difficult, but a little beardless Tibetan
barley is raised. The scanty population consists mainly of nomad
shepherds. In Ladakh the people are divided into shepherds or
_champas_, who roam over the Alpine pastures, and Ladakhis, who till
laboriously every available patch of culturable land in the river
valleys. Though both are Buddhists they rarely intermarry. Zanskar to
the N.W. of Rupshu is drained by the river of the same name, which flows
northwards to join the Indus below Leh. It forms part of the Kargil
_tahsil_. Zanskar is a bleak inaccessible region where the people and
cattle remain indoors for six months of the year. Its breed of ponies is
famous. In Ladakh proper cultivation ranges from 9000 to 15,000 feet.
The sandy soil must be manured and irrigated, and is often refreshed by
top-dressings of fresh earth from the hill sides. The crops are wheat
and barley, rape, lucerne, peas and beans, in spring, and buckwheat,
millets, and turnips, in autumn. There is a great lack of wood for
building and for fuel, and the deficiency in the latter case has to be
supplied by cow-dung cakes. Notwithstanding their hard life the people
are cheerful and fairly well off, for polyandry has prevented
overcrowding.
[Illustration: Fig. 141. Ladakh Hills.]
(_b_) _Baltistan._ In Baltistan, which lies to the N.W. of Ladakh, they
are Muhammadans and there is much more pressure on the soil. They are a
cheery race and very fond of polo. To support their families the men
have to work as carriers on the roads to Leh and Gilgit. They tend the
cattle in the pastures, keep the irrigation channels and the walls of
the terraced fields in repair, and do the ploughing. The rest of the
work of cultivation is left to the women. The climate is very severe and
most of the rivers are frozen in winter. On the other hand near the
Indus on the Skardo plain (7250 feet) and in the Rondu gorge further
west, the heat is intense in July and August. The dreary treeless stony
Deosai Plains on the road to Kashmir have an elevation of 13,000 feet.
The cultivation and crops are much the same as in Ladakh. Excellent
fruit is grown, and there is a considerable export of apricots. Gold
washing is carried on with profit.
Ladakh and Baltistan together form the Ladakh _wazarat_, divided into
the three _tahsils_ of Ladakh, Kargil, and Skardo.
(_c_) _Astor and Gilgit._--Where the Gilgit road from Kashmir descends
from the Burzil pass (13,500 feet) the country of Astor is reached. It
is drained by the Astor river, which joins the Indus to the south of
Bunji. The bridge which crosses it at Ramghat is only 3800 feet above
sea level. The village of Astor itself is at a height of 7853 feet. The
cultivation is of the same description as that in Baltistan. The aspect
of the country is bleak till the Indus is crossed, and Gilgit (4890
feet) is reached. Here there is a fertile well-watered oasis from which
on every side great mountain peaks are visible. The lands are heavily
manured. Rice, maize, millet, buckwheat, cotton, wheat, barley, rape,
and lucerne are grown. There is a second and easier road to Gilgit
from India over the Babusar pass at the top of the Kagan Glen in Hazara.
But the posts are sent by the Kashmir road. The Astoris and Gilgitis are
a simple easy-going folk, and, like the Baltis, very fond of polo. A
British Political Agent is stationed at Gilgit. He is responsible to the
Government of India for the administration of Hunza, Nagar, and Yasin,
and of the little republics in the neighbourhood of Chilas. Hunza and
Nagar lie to the north of Gilgit near the junction of the Muztagh and
Hindu Kush ranges, and Yasin far to the west about the upper waters of
the Gilgit river.
[Illustration: Fig. 142. Zojila Pass (page 12).]
In Astor and Gilgit also Gulab Singh's Dogras replaced the Sikh troops.
But across the Indus Gulab Singh was never strong, and after 1852 that
river was his boundary. He died in 1857, having proved himself a hard
and unscrupulous, but a capable and successful ruler. His son, Randhir
Singh, was a better man, but a worse king. A good Hindu, tolerant, and a
friend of learning, he had not the force of character to control the
corrupt official class, and the people suffered much in consequence. He
was a loyal ally in the Mutiny. In 1860 his forces recovered Gilgit, a
conquest which for years after was a fruitful source of suffering to his
Cis-Indus subjects. The present Maharaja, Sir Pratap Singh, G.C.S.I.,
succeeded in 1885. While he lived his brother, Raja Amar Singh, played a
very important part in Kashmir affairs. From 1887 to 1905 the
administration was managed by a small council, of which after 1891 the
Maharaja was President and Raja Amar Singh Vice-President. It was
abolished in 1905. There are now under the Maharaja a chief minister and
ministers in charge of the home and revenue departments. Judicial
business is controlled by the Judge of the High Court. Death sentences
must be confirmed by the Maharaja. The highest executive officers are
the governors of Jammu and Kashmir, and the _Wazirs Wazarat_ of Ladakh
and Gilgit. In Jammu and Kashmir each of the eight districts is in
charge of a _Wazir Wazarat_. In connection with the land revenue
settlement, forests, etc., the services of British officers have been
lent to the State. The Government of India is represented at Srinagar by
a Resident, and a political agent at Gilgit exercises a general
supervision over the _Wazir Wazarat_.
During the reign of the present Maharaja great reforms have been
effected. The construction of the Gilgit road has done away with the
blood tax, which the conveyance of supplies to that remote post formerly
involved. The land revenue settlement has largely substituted cash for
kind payments and done away with many abuses. Official corruption and
oppression have been scotched, but would speedily revive if vigilance
were relaxed. The different peoples ruled by the Maharaja are easily
governed if properly treated, and violent crime is rare.
* * * * *
_Note._ In the map appended to Dr Arthur Neve's _Thirty Years in
Kashmir_ the heights of Gasherbrum and Masherbrum (see page 21) are
given respectively as 26,360 and 25,560 feet, and that of Hidden Peak,
S.E. of Gasherbrum, as 26,470 feet. These with _K2_ are the highest
mountains round the Baltoro Glacier. Further east is the Siachen, "the
greatest glacier in Asia," which feeds the Nubra river (page 36). N.E.
of the Siachen is the Teram Kangri mountain, the height of which does
not probably exceed 25,000 feet. The actual height of the Nun Kun (page
12) is 23,447 feet. Dr Neve gives that of the Karakoram Pass as 18,110
feet, not 18,550 as stated on page 20.
CHAPTER XXIX
CITIES
~Delhi~ (28.38 N., 77.13 E.).--Of imperial cities the most interesting are
those which have felt the tragedies as well as enjoyed the glories of
Empire. From this point of view Delhi, notwithstanding its small extent
and modern foundation, may be grouped with Rome, Constantinople, and
Paris. In the matter of size it is in the same class as Edinburgh. The
present Delhi or Shahjahanabad is a creation of the middle of the
seventeenth century, and the oldest of the Delhis in the neighbourhood
goes back only to the fourth century of our era. The latter endured for
six or seven centuries. It was the capital of the Tunwar and Chauhan
Rajas, and takes its second name of Rai Pithora's Kila' or Fort from the
last Hindu King of Delhi, the famous Prithvi Raja. The early Muhammadan
kings occupied it and adorned it with splendid buildings. Firoz Shah
Tughlak's city of Firozabad occupied part of the present Delhi and the
country lying immediately to the south of it. The other so-called towns
Siri, Tughlakabad, and Indarpat or Purana Kila' (Old Fort) were
fortified royal residences round which other dwelling-houses and shops
sprang up.
The visitor to Delhi will be repaid if he can devote a week to the City
and the neighbourhood. It is impossible here to give any adequate
account of the objects of historic and architectural interest. No
visitor should be without Mr H. C. Fanshawe's _Delhi Past and Present_,
a work of great interest. The value of the text is enhanced by good maps
and excellent illustrations. In the Civil Station, which lies to the
north of the City and east of the Ridge, is Ludlow Castle, from the roof
of which General Wilson and his Staff watched the assault on 14th
September, 1857, when Delhi was retaken. Ludlow Castle is now the Delhi
Club. Between it and the northern rampart of the City, a defence against
the Mahrattas built by British officers fifty years earlier, grim
fighting took place on that historic day when the little British and
Indian force, till then rather besieged than besiegers, was at last
strong enough to attack. Here are the sites of the four batteries which
breached that rampart, and here is the grave of John Nicholson and the
statue recently erected in his honour (page 190). The Ridge to which the
little army had clung obstinately from May to September in scorching
heat and drenching rain, undismayed by repeated assaults and the ravages
of cholera, starts about half-a-mile to the west of the Mori bastion, at
the north-west corner of the city wall, and runs north by east to
Wazirabad on an old bed of the Jamna. Ascending to the Flagstaff Tower
one looks down to-day on the Circuit House and the site of the principal
camps at the great _darbar_ of 1911. Here was the old Cantonment and its
parade ground, on which the main encampment of the British force stood
in 1857. The position was strong, being defended by the ridge on the
east and the Najafgarh Canal on the west. It is open to the south, where
are the Savzi Mandi (Vegetable Market), now the site of factories, and
the Roshanara Gardens. It was on this side that the mutineers made their
most dangerous attacks. The road along the Ridge from the Flagstaff
Tower passes the Chauburji Mosque and Hindu Rao's house, which was the
principal target of the City batteries and was gallantly held by Major
Reid with his Sirmur Gurkhas, the Guides, and the 60th Rifles. Beyond
Hindu Rao's house is one of the stone pillars of Asoka, which Firoz
Shah Tughlak transported to Delhi. Still further south is the Mutiny
Memorial. As one reads the tale of the losses of the different regiments
one realizes in some measure the horrors and the heroism of which the
Ridge was witness.
[Illustration: Fig. 143. Delhi Mutiny Monument.
'In memory of the officers and soldiers, British and native, of the
Delhi Field Force who were killed in action or died of wounds or disease
between the 30th May and 20th September 1857.'
'This monument has been erected by the comrades who lament their loss
and by the Govmt: they served so well.']
~The City.~--When visiting the City from the Civil Lines it is well to
follow the road, which passing the Kudsia Gardens leads straight to the
Kashmir Gate, one of two places in India (the Lucknow Residency is the
other) which must stir with grateful pride the heart of the most
phlegmatic of Englishmen. The road from the Gate to the Fort and the
Jama Masjid is rich in memories of the Mutiny. It has on its left S.
James' Church, with memorial tablets within and outside the shot-riddled
globe which once surmounted its dome. Further on are the obelisk to the
telegraph officers who stuck to their posts on the fatal 11th of May,
and on a gateway of the Old Magazine a record of the heroism of the nine
devoted men, who blew it up, losing five of their number in the
explosion. Passing under the railway bridge one comes out on the open
space in front of Shahjahan's palace fort, which was finished about 1648
A.D. To the beautiful buildings erected by his father Aurangzeb added
the little Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque. But he never lived at Delhi
after 1682. The palace is therefore associated with the tragedies and
squalor of the decline and fall of the Moghal Empire rather than with
its glories. In 1739 it was robbed of the Kohinur and the Peacock throne
by Nadir Shah, in 1788 it saw the descendants of Akbar tortured and the
aged Emperor blinded by the hateful Ghulam Kadir, and on 16th May, 1857
the mutineers massacred fifty Christians captive within its walls. When
viewing the public and private halls of audience, known as the Diwan i
'Am and the Diwan i Khass, it is however natural to think rather of
scenes of splendour such as Bernier described when Aurangzeb sat in
royal apparel on the Peacock throne with a king's ransom in the aigrette
of his turban and the rope of pearls which hung from his neck. On such
an occasion, the pillars of the Diwan i 'Am were hung with gold brocades
and the floors covered with rich silken carpets. Half the court outside
was occupied by a magnificent tent and the arcade galleries surrounding
it were decked with brocades and covered with costly carpets. The marble
Diwan i Khass with its lovely pillars decorated with gold and precious
stones is surely the most splendid withdrawing room that a monarch ever
possessed. There is nothing in the Moorish palace at Granada which can
for a moment be compared with these two halls. For a description of them
and of the other buildings in the Fort the reader must refer to Mr
Fanshawe's book. In the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon and since much has
been done to restore their surroundings to some semblance of their
former state. But the heavy British barracks occupied by the little
garrison are very incongruous with the remains of Moghal grandeur.
Leaving the Fort by the Southern or Delhi Gate and turning to the right
one is faced by the Jama Masjid, another monument of the taste of
Shahjahan. The gateway and the lofty ascent into this House of God are
very fine. The mosque in the regular beauty and grandeur of its lines,
appealing to the sublimity rather than to the mystery of religion, is a
fitting symbol of the faith for whose service it was raised. South of
the Jama Masjid in a part of the city once included in Firozabad stands
the Kalan or Kala Masjid with low cupolas and heavy square black
pillars, a striking example of the sombre architecture of the Tughlak
period. A narrow street called the Dariba leads from the Jama Masjid to
the wide Chandni (Silver) Chauk. The Dariba was formerly closed by the
Khuni Darwaza or Gate of Blood, so called because here occurred that
terrible massacre of the citizens of Delhi which Nadir Shah witnessed
from the neighbouring Golden Mosque. Besides its width there is nothing
remarkable about the Chandni Chauk. But the visitor in quest of silver
work, jewellery, or embroidery will find there many shopkeepers ready to
cater for his wants. It was while passing down the Chandni Chauk in an
elephant procession on 23rd December, 1912, that Lord Hardinge was
wounded by a bomb thrown from one of the houses. From the Chauk one may
pass through the Queen's Gardens and Road to the opening in the wall
where the Kabul Gate once stood and so leave the City. A tablet in the
vicinity marks the spot where John Nicholson fell.
[Illustration: Fig. 144. Kashmir Gate.]
[Illustration: Fig. 145. Map of Delhi City.]
When visiting the old Delhis it is a good plan to drive again through
the City and to leave it by the Delhi Gate. Humayun's tomb, an early and
simple, but striking, specimen of Moghal architecture, is reached at a
distance of four miles along the Mathra road. Outside the City the road
first leaves on the left side the ruined citadel of Firoz Shah
containing the second Asoka pillar. North and south of this citadel
the town of Firozabad once lay. It ended where the Purana Kila' or Old
Fort, the work of Sher Shah and Humayun, now stands, a conspicuous
object from the road about three miles from Delhi. The red sandstone
gateway very narrow in proportion to its height is a noble structure,
and within the walls is Sher Shah's mosque. The fort and mosque are the
last important works of the second or Tughlak period. Hindus call the
site of the Old Fort, Indarpat. If any part of Delhi has a claim to
antiquity it is this, for it is alleged to be one of the five "pats" or
towns over which the war celebrated in the Mahabharata was waged. A
recent cleaning of part of the interior of the fort brought to light
bricks belonging to the Gupta period. From Humayun's tomb a cross road
leads to the Gurgaon road and the Kutb. But the visitor who has seen
enough of buildings for the day may proceed further down the Mathra road
and reach the headworks of the Agra Canal at Okhla by a side road. The
view looking back to Delhi up the Jamna is fine.
~The Kutb Minar.~--Starting for the Kutb from Humayun's tomb (page 207)
the Dargah of the great Chisti saint and political intriguer, Nizam ud
din Aulia, is passed on the left. He died in 1324 A.D. Just at the point
where the cross road meets the Gurgaon road is the tomb of Safdar Jang,
the second of the Nawab Wazirs of Oudh. He died after the middle of the
eighteenth century, and the building is wonderfully good considering
that it is one of the latest important monuments of the Moghal period.
Six miles to the south of Safdar Jang's tomb the entrance to the Kutb
Minar enclosure is reached. The great Kuwwat ul Islam mosque of
Kutbuddin Aibak (page 204) was constructed out of the materials of a
Jain temple which stood on the site. Evidence of this is to be found in
the imperfectly defaced sculptures on the pillars. An iron pillar nearly
24 feet in height dating back probably to the sixth century stands in
the court. The splendid column known as the Kutb Minar (page 205), begun
by Kutbuddin and completed by his successor Shams ud din Altamsh, was
the minaret of the mosque from which the _mu'azzin_ called the faithful
to prayer. The disappointment that may be felt when it is seen from a
distance is impossible on a nearer view. Its height is now 238 feet, but
it was formerly surmounted "by a majestic cupola of red granite." Close
by is the Alai Darwaza, a magnificent gateway built by Ala ud din
Tughlak in 1310, about 90 years after the Minar was finished. Five miles
east of the Kutb are the cyclopean ruins of Tughlakabad (page 206).
~Delhi past and present.~--The Delhi of Aurangzeb was as much a camp as a
city. When the Emperor moved to Agra or Kashmir the town was emptied of
a large part of its inhabitants. It contained one or two fine _bazars_,
and nobles and rich merchants and shopkeepers had good houses, set
sometimes in pleasant gardens. But the crowds of servants and followers
occupied mud huts, whose thatched roofs led to frequent and widespread
fires. In that insanitary age these may have been blessings in disguise.
"In Delhi," wrote Bernier, "there is no middle state. A man must either
be of the highest rank or live miserably.... For two or three who wear
decent apparel there may always be reckoned seven or eight poor, ragged,
and miserable beings." The ordinary street architecture of modern Delhi
is mean enough, and posterity will not open an eyelid to look at the
public buildings which its present rulers have erected in the city. But
at least the common folk of Delhi are better housed, fed, and clad than
ever before. It is now a clean well-managed town with a good water
supply, and it has become an important railway centre and a thriving
place of trade. Since 1881 the population has steadily increased from
173,393 to 232,837 in 1911. In 1911-12 the imports into Delhi City from
places outside the Panjab amounted to 9,172,302 maunds. There are some
fifteen cotton ginning, spinning, and weaving mills, besides flour
mills, iron foundries, two biscuit manufactories, and a brewery. The
city is well supplied with hospitals including two for women only.
Higher education has been fostered by S. Stephen's College in charge of
the Cambridge Missionary brotherhood. The Hindu college has not been
very successful. Delhi has had famous "hakims," practising the Yunani or
Arabic system of medicine, which is taught in a flourishing school known
as the Madrasa i Tibbiya.
~Imperial Darbars.~--In this generation the plain to the north of the
Ridge has been the scene of three splendid _darbars_. When on 1st
January, 1877, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India
(_Kaisar i Hind_) it seemed fitting that the proclamation of the fact to
the princes and peoples of India should be made by Lord Lytton at the
old seat of imperial power. On 1st January, 1903, Lord Curzon held a
_darbar_ on the same spot to proclaim the coronation of King Edward the
VIIth. Both these splendid ceremonies were surpassed by the _darbar_ of
12th December, 1911, when King George and Queen Mary were present in
person, and the Emperor received the homage of the ruling chiefs, the
great officials, and the leading men of the different provinces. The
King and Queen entered Delhi on 7th December, and in the week that
followed the craving of the Indian peoples for "_darshan_" or a sight
of their sovereign was abundantly gratified. None who saw the spectacles
of that historic week will ever forget them.
[Illustration: Fig. 146. Darbar Medal.]
New Imperial Capital.--The turn of Fortune's Wheel has again made Delhi
an imperial city. The transfer of the seat of government from Calcutta
announced by the King Emperor at the _darbar_, is now being carried out.
The site will probably extend from Safdar Jang's tomb to a point lying
to the west of Firoz Shah's citadel.
~Lahore~ (31.34 N., 74.21 E.). The capital of the Panjab lies on the east
bank of the Ravi, which once flowed close to the Fort, but has moved a
mile or two to the west. In high floods the waters still spread over the
lowlands between the Ravi and the Fort. Lahore lies nearly halfway
between Delhi and Peshawar, being nearer to the latter than to the
former.
~Early History.~--Practically we know nothing of its history till Mahmud
conquered the Panjab and put a garrison in a fort at Lahore. Henceforth
its history was intimately connected with Muhammadan rule in India.
Whether north-western India was ruled from Ghazni or from Delhi, the
chief provincial governor had his headquarters at Lahore. In the best
days of Moghal rule Agra and Lahore were the two capitals of the
Empire. Lahore lay on the route to Kabul and Kashmir, and it was
essential both to the power and to the pleasures of the Emperors that it
should be strongly held and united to Delhi and Agra by a Royal or
_Badshahi_ Road. The City and the Suburbs in the reign of Shahjahan
probably covered three or four times the area occupied by the town in
the days of Sikh rule. All round the city are evidences of its former
greatness in ruined walls and domes.
~The Civil Station.~--The Anarkali gardens and the buildings near them
mark the site of the first Civil Station. John Lawrence's house, now
owned by the Raja of Punch, is beyond the Chauburji on the Multan Road.
The Civil Lines have stretched far to the south-east in the direction of
the Cantonment, which till lately took its name from the tomb of Mian
Mir, Jahangir's spiritual master. The soil is poor and arid. Formerly
the roads were lined with dusty tamarisks. But of late better trees have
been planted, and the Mall is now quite a fine thoroughfare. The
Lawrence Hall Gardens and the grounds of Government House show what can
be done to produce beauty out of a bad soil when there is no lack of
water. There is little to praise in the architecture or statuary of
modern Lahore. The marble canopy over Queen Victoria's statue is however
a good piece of work. Of the two cathedrals the Roman Catholic is the
better building. The Montgomery Hall with the smaller Lawrence Hall
attached, a fine structure in a good position in the public gardens, is
the centre of European social life in Lahore. Government House is close
by, on the opposite side of the Mall. Its core, now a unique and
beautiful dining-room with domed roof and modern oriental decoration, is
the tomb of Muhammad Kasim Khan, a cousin of Akbar. Jamadar Khushal
Singh, a well-known man in Ranjit Singh's reign, built a house round the
tomb. After annexation, Henry Lawrence occupied it for a time, and Sir
Robert Montgomery adopted it as Government House. It is now much
transformed. Beyond Government House on the road to the Cantonment are
the Club and the Panjab Chiefs' College, the only successful attempt in
Lahore to adapt oriental design to modern conditions.
[Illustration: Fig. 147. Street in Lahore.]
~The Indian City.~--In its streets and _bazars_ Lahore is a truly eastern
city, and far more interesting than Delhi, so far as private buildings
are concerned. In public edifices it possesses some fine examples of
Moghal architecture. Every visitor should drive through the town to the
Fort past Wazir Khan's mosque. Under British rule the height of the city
wall has been reduced by one-half and the moat filled in and converted
into a garden. Wazir Khan's mosque founded in 1634 by a Panjabi
minister of Shahjahan, is a noble building profusely adorned with glazed
tiles and painted panels. The Golden Mosque was constructed 120 years
later about the same time as Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi. The palace
fort, built originally by Akbar, contains also the work of his three
successors. The Shish Mahal or Hall of Mirrors, which witnessed the
cession of the Panjab to the Queen of England, was begun by Shahjahan
and finished by Aurangzeb. The armoury contains a curious collection of
weapons. The Badshahi Mosque opposite with its beautiful marble domes
and four lofty minarets of red sandstone was founded in 1673 in the
reign of Aurangzeb. The cupolas were so shaken by an earthquake in 1840
that they had to be removed. Maharaja Ranjit Singh used the mosque as a
magazine. In the space between it and the Fort he laid out the pretty
orange garden known as the Huzuri Bagh and set in it the marble
_baradari_ which still adorns it. Close by are his own tomb and that of
Arjan Das, the fifth Guru.
~Buildings outside Lahore.~--The best example of Moghal architecture is
not at Lahore itself, but at Shahdara across the Ravi. Here in a fine
garden is the Mausoleum of Jahangir with its noble front and four
splendid towers. It enshrines an exquisite sarcophagus, which was
probably once in accordance with the Emperor's wish open to the sunlight
and the showers. Near by are the remains of the tombs of his beautiful
and imperious consort, Nur Jahan, and of her brother Asaf Khan, father
of the lady of the Taj. Another building associated with Jahangir is
Anarkali's tomb beside the Civil Secretariat. The white marble
sarcophagus is a beautiful piece of work placed now in most
inappropriate surroundings. The tomb was reared by the Emperor to
commemorate the unhappy object of his youthful love. Half-a-mile off on
the Multan road is the Chauburji, once the gateway of the Garden of
Zebunnissa a learned daughter of Aurangzeb. The garden has disappeared,
but the gateway, decorated with blue and green tiles, though partially
ruined, is still a beautiful object. On the other side of Lahore on the
road to Amritsar are the Shalimar Gardens laid out by Shahjahan for the
ladies of his court. When the paved channels are full and the fountains
are playing, and the lights of earthen lamps are reflected in the water,
Shalimar is still a pleasant resort.
[Illustration: Fig. 148. Shahdara.]
The Museum in Anarkali contains much of interest to Indians and
Europeans. The "house of wonders" is very popular with the former. It
includes a very valuable collection of Buddhist sculptures. Opposite the
museum is the famous Zamzama gun (page 187).
~Growth of Lahore.~ As the headquarters of an important Government and of
a great railway system Lahore has prospered. Owing to the influx of
workers the population has risen rapidly from 157,287 in 1881 to 228,687
in 1911. The railway alone affords support to 30,000 people, of whom
8000 are employed in the workshops.
~Amritsar~ (31.38 N., 74.53 E.) is a modern town founded in the last
quarter of the sixteenth century by the fourth Guru, Ram Das, on a site
granted to him by Akbar. Here he dug the Amrita Saras or Pool of
Immortality, leaving a small platform in the middle as the site of that
Har Mandar, which rebuilt is to-day, under the name of the Darbar Sahib,
the centre of Sikh devotion. The fifth Guru, Arjan Das, completed the
Har Mandar. Early in the eighteenth century Amritsar became without any
rival the Mecca of the Sikhs, who had now assumed an attitude of warlike
resistance to their Muhammadan rulers. Once and again they were driven
out, but after the victory at Sirhind in 1763 they established
themselves securely in Amritsar, and rebuilt the temple which Ahmad Shah
had burned. Ranjit Singh covered the Darbar Sahib with a copper gilt
roof, whence Englishmen commonly call it the Golden Temple. He laid out
the Ram Bagh, still a beautiful garden, and constructed the strong fort
of Govindgarh outside the walls.
~Trade and Manufactures.~--Amritsar lies in a hollow close to a branch of
the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Waterlogging is a great evil and accounts for
the terrible epidemics of fever, which have occurred from time to time.
The population has fluctuated violently, and at the last census was
152,756, or little larger than in 1881. Long before annexation the shawl
industry was famous. The caprice of fashion a good many years ago
decreed its ruin, but carpet weaving, for which Amritsar is still
famous, fortunately did something to fill the gap. Amritsar has also
been an entrepot of trade with other Asiatic countries. It has imported
raw silk from Bokhara, and later from China, and woven it into cloth. It
has dealt in China tea, but that is a decreasing trade, in opium from
Afghanistan, and in _charas_ from Central Asia. There is a considerable
export of foreign piece goods to Kashmir and the N. W. F. Province.
~Multan~ (30.1 N., 71.3 E.), though now the smallest of the four great
towns of the Panjab, is probably the most ancient. It is very doubtful
whether it is the fortress of the Malloi, in storming which Alexander
was wounded. But when Hiuen Tsang visited it in 741 A.D. it was a
well-known place with a famous temple of the Sun God. Muhammad Kasim
conquered it in 712 A.D. (page 166). It was not till the savage
Karmatian heretics seized Multan towards the end of the tenth century
that the temple, which stood in the fort, was destroyed. It was
afterwards rebuilt, but was finally demolished by order of Aurangzeb,
who set up in its place a mosque. Under the Moghals Multan was an
important town, through which the trade with Persia passed. Its later
history has already been noticed (pages 183 and 186).
~The Fort~ contains the celebrated Prahladpuri temple, much damaged during
the siege in 1848, but since rebuilt. Its proximity to the tomb of
Bahawal Hakk, a very holy place in the eyes of the Muhammadans of the
S.W. Panjab and Sindh, has at times been a cause of anxiety to the
authorities. Bahawal Hakk and Baba Farid, the two great saints of the
S.W. Panjab, were contemporaries and friends. They flourished in the
thirteenth century, and it probably would be true to ascribe largely to
their influence the conversion of the south-west Panjab to Islam, which
was so complete and of which we know so little. The tomb of Bahawal Hakk
was much injured during the siege, but afterwards repaired. Outside is a
small monument marking the resting place of the brave old Nawab
Muzaffar Khan. Another conspicuous object is the tomb of Rukn ud din
'Alam, grandson of Bahawal Hakk. An obelisk in the fort commemorates the
deaths of the two British officers who were murdered on the outbreak of
the revolt. A simpler epitaph would have befitted men who died in the
execution of their duty.
~Trade and Manufactures.~--Though heat and dust make the climate of Multan
trying, it is a very healthy place. The population rose steadily from
68,674 in 1881 to 99,243 in 1911. The chief local industries are silk
and cotton weaving and the making of shoes. Multan has also some
reputation for carpets, glazed pottery and enamel, and of late for tin
boxes. A special feature of its commerce is the exchange of piece goods,
shoes, and sugar for the raw silk, fruits, spices, and drugs brought in
by Afghan traders. The Civil Lines lie to the south of the city and
connect it with the Cantonment, which is an important military station.
~Peshawar~ (34.1 N., 71.35 E.) is 276 miles from Lahore and 190 from
Kabul. There is little doubt that the old name was Purushapura, the town
of Purusha, though Abu Rihan (Albiruni), a famous Arab geographer, who
lived in the early part of the eleventh century, calls it Parshawar,
which Akbar corrupted into Peshawar, or the frontier fort. As the
capital of King Kanishka it was in the second century of the Christian
era a great centre of Buddhism (page 164). Its possession of Buddha's
alms bowl and of yet more precious relics of the Master deposited by
Kanishka in a great _stupa_ (page 203) made it the first place to be
visited by the Chinese pilgrims who came to India between 400 and 630
A.D. Hiuen Tsang tells us the town covered 40 li or 6-3/4 miles. Its
position on the road to Kabul made it a place of importance under the
Moghal Empire. On its decline Peshawar became part of the dominions of
the Durani rulers of Kabul, and finally fell into the hands of Ranjit
Singh. His Italian general Avitabile ruled it with an iron rod. In 1901
it became the capital of the new N. W. F. Province.
~The Town~ lies near the Bara stream in a canal-irrigated tract. On the
north-west it is commanded by the Bala Hissar, a fort outside the walls.
The suburbs with famous fruit gardens are on the south side, and the
military and civil stations to the west. The people to be seen in the
_bazars_ of Peshawar are more interesting than any of its buildings. The
Gor Khatri, part of which is now the _tahsil_, from which a bird's-eye
view of the town can be obtained, was successively the site of a
Buddhist monastery, a Hindu temple, a rest-house built by Jahangir's
Queen, Nur Jahan, and the residence of Avitabile. The most noteworthy
Muhammadan building is Muhabbat Khan's mosque. Avitabile used to hang
people from its minarets. The Hindu merchants live in the quarter known
as Andar Shahr, the scene of destructive fires in 1898 and 1913.
Peshawar is now a well-drained town with a good water supply. It is an
entrepot of trade with Kabul and Bokhara. From the former come raw silk
and fruit, and from the latter gold and silver thread and lace _en
route_ to Kashmir. The Kabuli and Bokharan traders carry back silk
cloth, cotton piece goods, sugar, tea, salt, and Kashmir shawls.
~Simla~ (31.6 N., 77.1 E.) lies on a spur of the Central Himalaya at a
mean height exceeding 7000 feet. A fine hill, Jakko, rising 1000 feet
higher, and clothed with _deodar_, oak, and rhododendron, occupies the
east of the station and many of the houses are on its slopes. The other
heights are Prospect Hill and Observatory Hill in the western part of
the ridge. Viceregal Lodge is a conspicuous object on the latter, and
below, between it and the Annandale race-course, is a fine glen, where
the visitor in April from the dry and dusty plains can gather yellow
primroses (Primula floribunda) from the dripping rocks. The beautiful
Elysium Hill is on a small spur running northwards from the main ridge.
Simla is 58 miles by cart road from Kalka, at the foot of the hills, and
somewhat further by the narrow gauge railway.
[Illustration: Fig. 149. Trans-border traders in Peshawar.]
~History.~--Part of the site was retained at the close of the Gurkha war
in 1816, and the first English house, a wooden cottage with a thatched
roof, was built three years later. The first Governor General to spend
the summer in Simla was Lord Amherst in 1827. After the annexation of
the Panjab in 1849 Lord Dalhousie went there every year, and from 1864
Simla may be said to have become the summer capital of India. It became
the summer headquarters of the Panjab Government twelve years later. The
thirty houses of 1830 have now increased to about 2000. Six miles
distant on the beautiful Mahasu Ridge the Viceroy has a "Retreat," and
on the same ridge and below it at Mashobra there are a number of
European houses. There are excellent hotels in Simla, and the cold
weather tourist can pay it a very pleasant visit, provided he avoids the
months of January and February.
~Srinagar~ (34.5 N., 74.5 E.), the summer capital of the Maharaja of
Kashmir, is beautifully situated on both banks of the river Jhelam at a
level of 5250 feet above the sea. To the north are the Hariparvat or
Hill of Vishnu with a rampart built by Akbar and the beautiful Dal lake.
Every visitor must be rowed up its still waters to the Nasim Bagh, a
grove of plane (_chenar_) trees, laid out originally in the reign of the
same Emperor. Between the lake and the town is the Munshi Bagh, in and
near which are the houses of Europeans including the Residency. The
splendid plane trees beside the river bank, to which house boats are
moored, and the beautiful gardens attached to some of the houses, make
this a very charming quarter. The Takht i Suliman to the west of
Srinagar is crowned by a little temple, whose lower walls are of great
age. The town itself is intersected by evil-smelling canals and consists
in the main of a jumble of wooden houses with thatched roofs. Sanitary
abominations have been cleansed from time to time by great fires and
punished by severe outbreaks of cholera. The larger part of the
existing city is on the left side. The visitor may be content to view
the parts of the town to be seen as he is rowed down the broad waterway
from the Munshi Bagh passing under picturesque wooden bridges, and
beside temples with shining metal roofs and the beautiful mosque of Shah
Hamadan. On the left bank below the first bridge is the Shergarhi with
the Maharaja's houses and the Government Offices. Opposite is a fine
_ghat_ or bathing place with stone steps. Between the third and fourth
bridges on the right bank is Shah Hamadan's mosque, a carved cedar house
with Buddhist features, totally unlike the ordinary Indian mosque. The
stone mosque close by on the opposite side, built by Mir Jahan, was
seemingly rejected by Muhammadans as founded by a woman, and is now a
State granary. The Jama Masjid is on the north side, but not on the
river bank. The tomb of the great king, Zain ul Abidin, is below the
fourth bridge, which bears his name. In the same quarter are the
storehouses of the dealers in carpets and art wares and the Mission
School. The last should be visited by anyone who wishes to see what a
manly education can make of material in some respects unpromising.
[Illustration: Fig. 150 Mosque of the Shah Hamadan.]
CHAPTER XXX
OTHER PLACES OF NOTE
I. PANJAB.
(_a_) _Ambala Division._
~Ambala~, 30.2 N.--76.4 E. Population 80,131, of which 54,223 in
Cantonments. A creation of British rule. It became the headquarters of
the Political Agent for the Cis-Sutlej States in 1823, and the
Cantonment was established in 1843. The Native City and the Civil Lines
lie some miles to the N.W. of the Cantonment. Headquarters of district
and division.
~Bhiwani~ (~Hissar~), 28.5 N.--76.8 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_ in Hissar.
Population 31,100. On Rewari--Ferozepore branch of Rajputana--Malwa
Railway. Has a brisk trade with Rajputana.
~Hansi~ (~Hissar~), 29.7 N.--75.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population
14,576. A very ancient town. In centre of canal tract of Hissar, and a
local centre of the cotton trade.
~Hissar~, 29.1 N.--75.4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 17,162.
Founded by the Emperor Firoz Shah Tughlak, who supplied it with water by
a canal taken from the Jamna. This was the origin of the present Western
Jamna Canal. Is now a place of small importance.
~Jagadhri~ (~Ambala~), 30.1 N.--77.2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
Population 12,045. Connected with the N.W. Railway by a light railway.
The iron and brass ware of Jagadhri are well known.
~Kaithal~ (~Karnal~), 29.5 N.--76.2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
_tahsil_. Population 12,912. A town of great antiquity. Kaithal is a
corruption of Kapisthala--the monkey town, a name still appropriate.
Timur halted here on his march to Delhi. Was the headquarters of the
Bhais of Kaithal, who held high rank among the Cis-Sutlej Sikh chiefs.
Kaithal lapsed in 1843.
~Karnal~, 29.4 N.--76.6 E. Headquarters of district. Population 21,961. On
Delhi--Kalka Railway. Till the Western Jamna Canal was realigned it was
most unhealthy, and the Cantonment was given up in 1841 on this account.
The health of the town is still unsatisfactory. Trade unimportant.
~Kasauli~ (~Ambala~), 30.5 N.--76.6 E. Small hill station overlooking
Kalka. Height 6000 feet. The Pasteur Institute for the treatment of
rabies is at Kasauli, and the Lawrence Military School at Sanawar, three
miles off.
~Panipat~ (~Karnal~), 29.2 N.--76.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
Population 26,342. On Delhi--Kalka Railway. An important place in Hindu
and Muhammadan times (pages 172 and 179). Local manufactures, brass
vessels, cutlery, and glass.
~Pihowa~ (~Karnal~), 29.6 N.--76.3 E. A very sacred place on the holy
stream Sarusti.
~Rewari~ (~Gurgaon~), 28.1 N.--76.4 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
Population 24,780. Junction of main line and Rewari--Bhatinda branch of
Rajputana--Malwa Railway. Trade in grain and sugar with Rajputana.
~Rupar~ (~Ambala~), 30.6 N.--76.3 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
_tahsil_. Population 6935. Exchange market for products of Hills and
Plains. Headworks of Sirhind Canal are at Rupar.
~Sirsa~ (~Hissar~), 29.3 N.--75.2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
_tahsil_. Population 14,629. Sirsa or Sarsuti was an important place in
Muhammadan times. Deserted in the great famine of 1783 it was refounded
in 1838. On the Rewari--Bhatinda Branch of the Rajputana--Malwa Railway.
Has a brisk trade with Rajputana.
~Thanesar~ (~Karnal~), 29.6 N.--76.5 E. See pages 165 and 168. Noted
place of pilgrimage. Headquarters of a _tahsil_. Population 4719. The
old Hindu temples were utterly destroyed apparently when Thanesar was
sacked by Mahmud in 1014. There is a fine tomb of a Muhammadan Saint,
Shekh Chilli.
(_b_) _Jalandhar Division._
~Aliwal~, 30.6 N.--75.4 E. Scene of Sir Harry Smith's victory over the
Sikhs on 28th January, 1846.
~Dharmsala~ (~Kangra~), 32.1 N.--76.1 E. Headquarters of district. On a
spur of the Dhauladhar Range. A Gurkha regiment is stationed here. The
highest part of Dharmsala is over 7000 feet, and the scenery is very
fine, but the place is spoiled as a hill station by the excessive
rainfall, which averages over 120 inches. In the earthquake of 1905,
1625 persons, including 25 Europeans, perished.
~Fazilka~ (~Ferozepore~), 30.3 N.--74.3 E. Headquarters of sub-division
and _tahsil_. Population 10,985. Terminus of Fazilka extension of
Rajputana--Malwa Railway, and connected with Ludhiana by a line which
joins the Southern Panjab Railway at Macleodganj. A grain mart.
~Ferozepore~, 30.6 N.--74.4 E. Headquarters of district. Population
50,836 including 26,158 in Cantonment. (See page 245.)
~Ferozeshah~ (~Ferozepore~), 30.5 N.--74.5 E. The real name is
Pherushahr. Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs here after two days' hard
fighting on Dec. 21-22, 1845.
~Jalandhar~, 31.2 N.--75.3 E. Headquarters of district. Population
69,318, including 13,964 in Cantonment. The Cantonment lies four miles
to the S.E. of the native town and three miles from the Civil Lines.
(See page 241.)
~Jawala Mukhi~ (~Kangra~), 31.5 N.--76.2 E. Celebrated place of Hindu
pilgrimage with a famous temple of the goddess Jawalamukhi, built over
some jets of combustible gas.
~Kangra~, 30.5 N.--76.2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Ancient name
Nagarkot. The celebrated temple and the fort of the Katoch kings of
Kangra were destroyed in the earthquake of 1905. (See pages 168, 171,
183.)
~Ludhiana~, 30.6 N.--75.5 E. Headquarters of district. Population
44,170. The manufacture of _pashmina_ shawls was introduced in 1833 by
Kashmiris. Ludhiana is well known for its cotton fabrics and turbans (p.
152).
~Mudki~ (~Ferozepore~), 30.5 N.--74.5 E. The opening battle of the 1st
Sikh War was fought here on 18th December, 1845.
(_c_) _Lahore Division._
~Batala~ (~Gurdaspur~), 30.5 N.--75.1 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
Population 26,430. Chief town in Gurdaspur district on the
Amritsar--Pathankot Railway. Cotton, silk, leathern goods, and soap are
manufactured, and there is a large trade in grain and sugar. The Baring
Anglo-Vernacular High School for Christian boys is a well-known
institution.
~Dalhousie~ (~Gurdaspur~), 33.3 N.--75.6 E. A well-known hill station at
height of 7687 feet, 51 miles N.W. of Pathankot, from which it is
reached by tonga. The Commissioner of Lahore and the Deputy Commissioner
of Gurdaspur spend part of the hot weather at Dalhousie. It is a very
pretty and healthy place, with the fine Kalatop Forest in Chamba close
by, and is deservedly popular as a summer resort.
~Gujranwala~, 32.9 N.--74.1 E. Headquarters of district. Population
29,472. An active trade centre. Ranjit Singh was born, and the tomb of
his father, Mahan Singh is, at Gujranwala.
~Kasur~ (~Lahore~), 31.8 N--74.3 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_ in Lahore.
Population 24,783. Between Raiwind and Ferozepore on N.W. Railway, and
has direct railway communication with Amritsar. A very ancient place and
now an active local trade centre.
~Nankana-Sahib~ (~Gujranwala~), 31.6 N.--73.8 E. In south of Gujranwala
district on Chichoki--Shorkot Railway. Venerated by Sikhs as the early
home of Baba Nanak.
~Sialkot~, 32.3 N.--74.3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 64,869,
of which 16,274 in Cantonment. A very old place connected with the
legendary history of Raja Salivahan and his two sons Puran and Raja
Rasalu. (See also page 165.) The Cantonment is about a mile and a half
from the town. Sialkot is an active trade centre. Its hand-made paper
was once well known, but the demand has declined. Tents, tin boxes,
cricket and tennis bats, and hockey sticks, are manufactured.
~Tarn Taran~ (~Amritsar~), 31.3 N.--74.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
Population 4260. On Amritsar--Kasur Railway. The tank is said to have
been dug by Guru Arjan and it and the temple beside it are held in great
reverence by the Sikhs. The water is supposed to cure leprosy. The leper
asylum at Tarn Taran in charge of the Rev. E. Guilford of the Church
Missionary Society is an admirable institution. Clay figures of this
popular missionary can be bought in the _bazar_.
(_d_) _Rawalpindi Division._
~Attock~ (~Atak~), 32.5 N.--72.1 E. The fort was built by Akbar to
protect the passage of the Indus. In the river gorge below is a
whirlpool between two jutting slate rocks, called Kamalia and Jamalia
after two heretics who were flung into the river in Akbar's reign. The
bridge which carries the railway across the Indus still makes Attock a
position of military importance. Population 630.
~Bhera~ (~Shahpur~), 32.3 N.--72.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
Population 15,202. A very ancient town which was sacked by Mahmud and
two centuries later by Chingiz Khan. Has an active trade. The
wood-carvers of Bhera are skilful workmen. Woollen felts are
manufactured.
~Chilianwala~ (~Chelianwala~) (~Gujrat~), 32.7 N.--73.6 E. Famous
battlefield (page 187).
~Gujrat~, 32.3 N.--74.5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 19,090.
An old place, famous in recent history for the great battle on 22
February, 1849 (page 187). Has a brisk local trade.
~Hasn Abdal~ (~Attock~) 33.5 N.--72.4 E. On N.W. Railway. Shrine of Baba
Wali Kandahari on hill above village. Below is the Sikh shrine of the
Panja Sahib, the rock in which bears the imprint of Baba Nanak's five
fingers (_panja_).
~Jhelam~, 32.6 N.--73.5 E. Headquarters of district and an important
cantonment. Population 19,678, of which 7380 in cantonment. Has only
become a place of any importance under British rule. Is an important
depot for Kashmir timber trade.
~Kalabagh~ (~Mianwali~), 32.6 N.--71.3 E. Population 6654. Picturesquely
situated below hills which are remarkable for the fantastic shapes
assumed by salt exposed on the surface. The Kalabagh salt is in favour
from its great purity. The Malik of Kalabagh is the leading man in the
Awan tribe.
~Katas~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--72.6 E. A sacred pool in the Salt Range and
a place of Hindu pilgrimage. The tears of Siva weeping for the loss of
his wife Sati formed the Kataksha pool in the Salt Range and Pushkar at
Ajmer.
~Khewra~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--73.3 E. In Salt Range five and a half
miles N.E. of Pinddadankhan. The famous Mayo Salt Mine is here.
~Malot~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--72.5 E. Nine miles W. of Katas (see above).
Fort and temple on a spur of the Salt Range. Temple in early Kashmir
style (_Archaeological Survey Reports_, Vol. v. pp. 85-90).
~Mankiala~ (~Manikyala~) (~Rawalpindi~), 33.3 N.--74.2 E. A little
village close to which are the remains of a great Buddhist _stupa_ and
of a number of monasteries (page 202).
~Murree~ (~Marri~) (~Rawalpindi~), 33.5 N.--73.2 E. Hill Station near
Kashmir road on a spur of the Himalaya--height 7517 feet--39 miles from
Rawalpindi, from which visitors are conveyed by tonga. The views from
Murree are magnificent and the neighbourhood of the Hazara Galis is an
attraction. But the climate is not really bracing. The summer
headquarters of the Northern Army are at Murree, and before 1876 the
Panjab Government spent the hot weather there. The Commissioner and
Deputy Commissioner of Rawalpindi take their work there for several
months.
~Murti~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--72.6 E. In Gandhala valley on bank of Katas
stream. Remains of a Buddhist _stupa_ and of a Jain temple.
(_Archaeological Survey Reports_, Vol. II. pp. 88 and 90.)
~Rawalpindi~, 33.4 N.--73.7 E. Headquarters of district and division,
and the most important cantonment in Northern India. Population 86,483,
of which 39,841 in Cantonment. It owes its importance entirely to
British rule. Large carrying trade with Kashmir. Contains the N.W.
Railway Locomotive and Carriage works and several private factories,
also a branch of the Murree brewery. There is an important arsenal. The
Park, left fortunately mainly in its natural state, is an attractive
feature of the cantonment.
~Rohtas~ (~Jhelam~), 32.6 N.--73.5 E. Ten miles N.W. of Jhelam on the
far side of the gorge where the Kaha torrent breaks through a spur of
the Tilla Range. Fine remains of a very large fort built by the Emperor
Sher Shah Suri.
~Sakesar~ (~Shahpur~), 31.3 N.--71.6 E. Highest point of Salt Range,
5010 feet above sea level. The Deputy Commissioners of Shahpur,
Mianwali, and Attock spend part of the hot weather at Sakesar.
~Shahdheri~ (~Rawalpindi~), 33.2 N.--72.5 E. On the Hazara border and
near the Margalla Pass. Site of the famous city of Taxila (Takshasila).
See pages 161, 165, and 204. Excavation is now being carried out with
interesting results.
~Taxila~. See Shahdheri.
(_e_) _Multan Division._
~Chiniot~ (~Jhang~), 31.4 N.--73.0 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population
14,085. A very old town near the left bank of the Chenab. Famous for
brasswork and wood-carving. The Muhammadan Khoja traders have large
business connections with Calcutta, Bombay, and Karachi. Fine mosque of
the time of Shahjahan.
~Kamalia~ (~Lyallpur~), 30.4 N.--72.4 E. Population 8237. An old town.
Cotton printing with hand blocks is a local industry. The town should
now prosper as it is a station on the Chichoki--Shorkot Road Railway and
irrigation from the Lower Chenab Canal has reached its neighbourhood.
~Lyallpur~, 31.3 N.--73.9 E. Fine new Colony town. Headquarters of
district. Population 19,578. Large wheat trade with Karachi, and has a
number of cotton ginning and pressing factories.
~Montgomery~, 30.4 N.--73.8 E. Headquarters of district. Population 8129.
May become a place of some importance with the opening of the Lower Bari
Doab Canal. Hitherto one of the hottest and dreariest stations in the
Panjab, but healthy.
~Pakpattan~, 30.2 N.--73.2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population 7912.
On Sutlej Valley Railway. Anciently known as Ajodhan and was a place of
importance. Contains shrine of the great Saint Farid ul Hakk wa ud Din
Shakarganj (1173-1265). Visited by Timur in 1398. There is a great
annual festival attracting crowds of pilgrims, who come even from
Afghanistan. There is great competition to win eternal bliss by getting
first through the gate at the entrance to the shrine.
II. PANJAB NATIVE STATES.
~Bahawalpur~, 29.2 N.--71.5 E. Capital of State on N.W. Railway 65 miles
south of Multan. Population 18,414. There is a large palace built by
Nawab Muhammad Sadik Muhammad Khan IV in 1882.
~Barnala~ (~Patiala~), 32.2 N.--75.4 E. Headquarters of Anahadgarh Nizamat
on Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of N.W. Railway. Population 5341. For the
famous battle see page 179.
~Bhatinda~ (~Patiala~), 30.1 N.--75.0 E. Also called Govindgarh. Old names
are Vikramagarh and Bhatrinda. Historically a place of great interest
(page 167). Fell into decay in later Muhammadan times. Is now a great
railway junction and a nourishing grain mart. The large fort is a
conspicuous object for many miles round. Population 15,037.
~Brahmaur~, 32.3 N.--76.4 E. The old capital of Chamba, now a small
village. Has three old temples. One of Lakshana Devi has an inscription
of Meru Varma, who ruled Chamba in the seventh century.
~Chamba~, 32.3 N.--76.1 E. Capital of State picturesquely situated on a
plateau above right bank of Ravi. Population 5523. The white palace is a
conspicuous object. There is an excellent hospital and an interesting
museum. The group of temples near the palace is noteworthy (page 201).
That of Lakshmi Narayan perhaps dates from the tenth century. The Ravi
is spanned at Chamba by a fine bridge.
~Chini~ (~Bashahr~), 31.3 N.--78.2 E. Headquarters of Kanawar near the
right bank of Sutlej. Elevation 9085 feet. Was a favourite residence of
Lord Dalhousie. There is a Moravian Mission Station at Chini.
~Kapurthala~, 31.2 N.--75.2 E. Capital of State. Contains Maharaja's
palace. Population 16,367.
~Malerkotla~, 30.3 N.--75.6 E. Capital of State. Population 23,880.
~Mandi~, 31.4 N.--76.6 E. Capital of State. Population 7896. On the
Bias, 131 miles from Pathankot, with which it is connected by the
Pathankot--Palampur--Baijnath road. There is a fine iron bridge spanning
the Bias. It is a mart for trade with Ladakh and Yarkand.
~Nabha~, 30.2 N.--76.1 E. Capital of State. Population 13,620, as
compared with 18,468 in 1901. Founded in 1755 by Hamir Singh (page 277).
Since irrigation from the Sirhind Canal has been introduced the environs
have become waterlogged and the town is therefore unhealthy.
~Nahan~, 30.3 N.--77.2 E. Capital of Sirmur State. Elevation 3207 feet.
Population 6341. There is a good iron foundry at Nahan.
~Patiala~, 30.2 N.--76.3 E. Capital of State. Population 46,974. On
Rajpura-Bhatinda Branch of N.W. Railway. Contains fine gardens and
modern buildings. The old palace is in the centre of the town. Patiala
is a busy mart for local trade.
~Pattan Munara~ (~Bahawalpur~), 28.1 N.--70.2 E. There are the ruins
here of a large city and of a Buddhist monastery. They are situated in
the south of the State five miles east of Rahim Yar Khan Station.
~Sangrur~ (~Jind~), 30.1 N.--75.6 E. Became the capital of Jind State in
1827. Population 9041. On Ludhiana--Dhuri--Jakhal Railway.
~Sirhind~ (~Patiala~), 30.4 N.--76.3 E. Properly Sahrind. On N.W.
Railway. Population 3843. The idea that the name is Sir-Hind = head of
India is a mistake. An old town of great importance in Muhammadan period
(pages 177 and 180). The ruins extend for several miles. There are two
fine tombs known as those of the Master and his Disciple dating probably
from the fourteenth century.
~Sui Vehar~ (~Bahawalpur~), 29.2 N.--71.3 E. Six miles from Samasata.
Site of a ruined Buddhist _stupa_. An inscription found at Sui Vehar
belongs to the reign of Kanishka (page 164).
~Uch~ (~Bahawalpur~), 29.1 N.--71.4 E. On the Sutlej near the point
where it joins the Chenab. Consists now of three villages. But it was in
early Muhammadan times a place of great importance, and a centre of
learning. It is still very sacred in the eyes of Musalmans.
III. NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE.
(_a_) _Districts._
~Abbottabad~, 34.9 N.--73.1 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment
with four battalions of Gurkhas. Population 11,506. At south end of
Orash Plain 4120 feet above sea level. Appropriately named after Captain
James Abbott (page 299).
~Bannu.~ See Edwardesabad.
~Cherat~ (~Peshawar~), 33.5 N.--71.5 E. Small hill sanitarium in Peshawar
near Kohat border, 4500 feet above sea level.
~Dera Ismail Khan~, 31.5 N.--70.6 E. Headquarters of district and a
cantonment. Population 35,131, including 5730 in cantonment. The Powinda
caravans pass through Dera Ismail Khan on their march to and from India.
~Dungagali~ (~Hazara~), 34.6 N.--73.2 E. Small sanitarium, elevation 7800
feet, in Hazara Galis, two miles from Nathiagali. Moshpuri rises above
it to a height of 9232 feet.
~Edwardesabad~ (~Bannu~), 33.0 N.--70.4 E. Headquarters of Bannu district
and a cantonment. Founded by Lieutenant (afterwards Sir Herbert)
Edwardes in 1848. Population 16,865. It is unhealthy owing to the heavy
irrigation in the neighbourhood.
~Fort Lockhart~ (~Kohat~), 33.3 N.--70.6 E. Important military outpost on
Samana Range, elevation 6743 feet. Saragarhi, heroically defended by
twenty-one Sikhs in 1897 against several thousand Orakzais, is in the
neighbourhood.
~Kohat~, 33.3 N.--71.3 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment.
Population 22,654, including 5957 in Cantonment. On Khushalgarh--Thal
Branch of N.W. Railway.
~Mansehra~ (~Hazara~), 34.2 N.--73.1 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. The two
rock edicts of Asoka are in the neighbourhood (pages 163 and 202).
~Nathiagali~ (~Hazara~), 34.5 N.--73.6 E. Summer headquarters of Chief
Commissioner of N.W.F. Province in Hazara Galis. Elevation 8200 feet. It
is a beautiful little hill station. Miran Jani (9793 feet) is close by,
and on a clear day Nanga Parvat can be seen in the far distance.
~Naushahra~ (~Peshawar~), 34 N.--72 E. Population 25,498, including 14,543
in cantonment. On railway 27 miles east of Peshawar. Risalpura, a new
cavalry cantonment, is in the neighbourhood.
~Shekhbudin~, 32.2 N.--70.5 E. Small hill station on Nila Koh on border
of Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu districts. Elevation 4516 feet. It is on a
bare limestone rock with very scanty vegetation and is hot in summer in
the daytime. Water is scarce. The Deputy Commissioners of Bannu and Dera
Ismail Khan spend part of the hot weather at Shekhbudin.
~Thal~ (~Kohat~), 33.2 N.--70.3 E. Important military outpost at
entrance of Kurram Valley. Terminus of Khushalgarh--Thal branch of N.W.
Railway.
~Thandiani~ (~Hazara~), 34.1 N.--73.2 E. Small hill station in Galis
sixteen miles N.E. of Abbottabad. Elevation about 8800 feet. A
beautifully situated place chiefly resorted to by residents of
Abbottabad and Missionaries.
(_b_) _Agencies and Independent Territory._
~Ali Masjid~ (~Khaibar~), 34.2 N.--71.5 E. Village and fort in Khaibar,
10-1/4 miles from Jamrud. Elevation 2433 feet.
~Ambela~ (~Indep. Territory~), 34.2 N.--72.4 E. Pass in Buner, which
gave its name to the Ambela campaign of 1863 (page 191).
~Chakdarra~ (~Dir~, ~Swat~, and ~Chitral~), 34.4 N.--72.8 E. Military
post to N.E. of Malakand Pass on south bank of Swat River.
~Chitral~, 35.5 N.--71.5 E. A group of villages forming capital of
Chitral State. There is a small _bazar_.
~Jamrud~ (~Khaibar~), 34 N.--71.2 E. Just beyond Peshawar boundary at
mouth of Khaibar. Terminus of railway. 10-1/2 miles west of Peshawar.
There is a fort and a large _sarai_. Elevation 1670 feet.
~Landi Kotal~ (~Khaibar~), 34.6 N.--71.8 E. 20 miles from Jamrud. Fort
garrisoned by Khaibar Rifles at highest point of Khaibar route.
Elevation 3373 feet. Afghan frontier 6 miles beyond.
~Malakand~ (~Dir~, ~Swat~, and ~Chitral~), 34.3 N.--71.6 E. Pass leading
into Swat Valley from Peshawar district.
~Miram Shah~ (~N. Waziristan~), 33.6 N.--70.7 E. Headquarters of North
Waziristan Agency in Tochi Valley 3050 feet above the sea.
~Parachinar~ (~Kurram~), 33.5 N.--70.4 E. Headquarters of Kurram Agency
and of Kurram Militia. Climate temperate. Population 2364.
~Wana~ (~S. Waziristan~), 37.2 N.--69.4 E. Headquarters of South
Waziristan Agency. In a wide valley watered by Wana Toi. There is much
irrigation and the place is unhealthy, though the elevation of the
Valley is from 4300 to 5800 feet.
IV. KASHMIR AND JAMMU.
~Baramula~, 34.1 N.--74.2 E. Situated at the point where the Jhelam gorge
ends and the Vale of Kashmir begins. Travellers who intend to go to
Srinagar by water board their house boats here. There is an excellent
poplar-lined road from Baramula to Srinagar and a bad road to Gulmarg.
~Chilas~, 35.4 N.--74.2 E. See page 323.
~Gulmarg~, 34.1 N.--74.4 E. S.W. of Srinagar. It is a favourite hot
weather resort of Europeans. The Maharaja has a house here. The forest
scenery is beautiful, especially on the way to the limit of trees at
Khilanmarg. Good golf links on beautiful turf.
~Gurais~, 34.7 N.--74.8 E. A beautiful valley drained by the head waters
of the Kishnganga. It lies between Bandipura and the Burzil Pass on the
road to Gilgit.
~Hunza~, 36.4 N.--74.7 E. (See page 323.) Hunza is a group of villages.
The Raja's (or Tham's) fort, Baltit castle, at an elevation of 7000 feet
is splendidly situated in full view of Rakaposhi, distant 20 miles. It
is overhung by the enormous mass of snow peaks said to be called in the
language of the country Boiohaghurduanasur (the peak of the galloping
horse).
~Islamabad~, 33.4 N.--75.1 E. About 40 miles by river from Srinagar, near
the point where the Jhelam ceases to be navigable. Achabal and Martand
are easily visited from Islamabad, and it is the starting point for the
Liddar Valley and Pahlgam. It is a dirty insanitary place.
~Jammu~, 32.4 N.--74.5 E. Capital of the Jammu province and winter
residence of the Maharaja. Connected with Sialkot by rail. Situated
above the ravine in which the Tawi flows. At a distance the white-washed
temples with gilded pinnacles look striking. The town was once much more
prosperous than it is to-day.
~Leh~, 34.2 N.--77.5 E. Capital of Ladakh. On the Indus 11,500 feet above
sea-level. The meeting place of caravans from India and Yarkand. The
Central Asian caravans arrive in Autumn, when the _bazar_, in a wide
street lined with poplars, becomes busy. The Wazir Wazarat has his
headquarters here, and there is a small garrison in the mud fort. The
old palace of the Gyalpo (King) is a large pile on a ridge overhanging
the town. There are Moravian and Roman Catholic missions at Leh.
~Martand~, 33.4 N.--75.1 E. Remains of a remarkable temple of the Sun god
three miles east of Islamabad (pages 166 and 201).
~Payer~ (erroneously ~Payech~). Nineteen miles from Srinagar containing a
beautiful and well-preserved temple of the Sun god, dated variously from
the fifth to the thirteenth century (page 202).
~Punch~, 33.4 N.--74.9 E. Capital of the _jagir_ of the Raja of Punch, a
feudatory of the Kashmir State. 3300 feet above sea level. There is a
brisk trade in grain and _ghi_. Decent roads connect Punch with
Rawalpindi and Uri on the Jhelam. Cart Road into Kashmir. Kashmiris call
the place Prunts and its old name was Parnotsa.
~Skardo~, 35.3 N.--75.6 E. Old capital of Baltistan. 7250 feet above
sea-level. In a sandy basin lying on both sides of the Indus, and about
five miles in width. A _tahsildar_ is stationed at Skardo.
* * * * *
TABLE I. _Tribes of Panjab (including Native States) and N.W.F.
Province[1]._
------------------------------+------------------------+---------------------------+-------------------------
Landholding etc. | Traders | Artizans and menials | Impure Castes
--------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
Tribe |Panjab|N.W.F.P.| Tribe |Panjab|N.W.F.P.| Tribe |Panjab|N.W.F.P.| Tribe |Panjab|N.W.F.P.
| p.c. | p.c. | | p.c. | p.c. | | p.c. | p.c. | | p.c. | p.c.
--------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
Jats | 20.5 | 3.9 | Aroras | 2.8 | 3.1 |Lohars and | | |Chuhra[8]| 5.1 |
Rajputs | 6.8 | .7 | Khatris| 1.8 | 1.2 |Tarkhans[2]| 4.0 | 3.3 |Chamar[9]| 4.7 |
Arains and | | | Banias | 1.7 | -- |Julahas[3] | 2.6 | 1.7 | | |
Kambohs | 4.8 | -- | | | |Jhinwar and| | | | |
Brahmans | 4.2 | .6 | | | | Machhi[4] | 2.6 | --- | | |
Gujars | 2.5 | 5.2 | | | |Kumhar[5] | 2.3 | 1.0 | | |
Biloch | 2.2 | 1.2 | | | |Nai[6] | 1.4 | 1.1 | | |
Awan | 1.8 | 12.6 | | | |Teli[7] | 1.2 | .3 | | |
Shekhs inc. | | | | | | | | | | |
Kureshi | 1.7 | | | | | | | | | |
Kanet | 1.7 | -- | | | | | | | | |
Sainis, Malis,| | | | | | | | | | |
and Malliars | 1.3 | 1.8 | | | | | | | | |
Pathans | 1.2 | 38.3 | | | | | | | | |
Saiyyids | 1.0 | 4.4 | | | | | | | | |
--------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
[1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.
[2] Blacksmiths and Carpenters.
[3] Weavers.
[4] Water carriers.
[5] Potter.
[6] Barber.
[7] Oilman.
[8] Scavenger.
[9] Leather-worker.
* * * * *
TABLE II. _Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land Revenue._
----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------------+----------+-----------
| | | | | Classes of Cultivation, p.c. |Population| Land
Zone | District |Rainfall|No. of |Cultivated+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+ 1911 |Revenue
| | in |Masonry| Area | | | | | | | | |in 1911-12
| |inches |Wells | Acres | Well | Canal| Abi |Total |Moist | Dry |Total | |in hundreds
| | | | 1911-12 | | | |Irrd. | | |Unirrd.| |of rupees
----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
|Kanga | 125 | 5 | 587,826 | -- | -- |20 |20 | -- |80 | 80 | 770,386| 9,267
|Simla | 68 | -- | 9,984 | -- | -- | 7 | 7 | -- |93 | 93 | 39,320| 175
|Ambala | 35 | 2,154 | 750,515 | 4 | -- | 2 | 6 | 4 |90 | 94 | 689,970| 11,477
|Hoshyarpur | 36 | 6,841 | 722,122 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 8 | -- |92 | 92 | 918,569| 14,225
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|Total British| -- | 9,000 |2,070,447 | 3 | 1 | 6-1/2|10-1/2| 1-1/2|88 | 89-1/2| 2,418,245| 35,144
Mountain |dts. Panjab | | | | | | | | | | | |(1.10.0[1])
and +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
Submontane| Hazara | | | | | | | | | | | |
| (N.W.F.P.) | 46 | 353 | 430,872 | -- | -- |10 |10 | -- |90 | 90 | 603,028| 5,129
| | | | | | | | | | | | | (1.3.1)
+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
|Kashmir and | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Jammu | 35[3] | -- |1,750,056 | -- | -- | -- |32 | -- | -- | 68 | 2,893,066| --
|Indus | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Valley[2] | 5[4] | -- | 121,952 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |100 | 210,315| --
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|Total Kashmir| -- | -- |1,872,008 | -- | -- | -- |30 | -- | -- | 70 | 3,103,381| --
----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
| Gujrat | 28 |10,221 | 845,023 |26 | -- | -- |26 | 6 |68 | 74 | 784,011| 8,445
North | Sialkot | 35 |23,010 | 941,558 |54 | 1 | 3 |58 | 9 |33 | 42 | 979,553| 14,847
Central | Gurdaspur | 35 | 6,439 | 844,403 |16 |11 | -- |27 |14 |59 | 73 | 836,771| 15,410
Panjab | Amritsar | 24 |12,386 | 787,229 |31 |31 | -- |62 | 4 |34 | 38 | 880,728| 12,746
Plain | Jalandhar | 28 |28,289 | 695,571 |44 | -- | -- |44 | 5 |51 | 56 | 801,920| 14,871
(British | Ludhiana | 28 | 9,991 | 754,373 |19 | 7 | -- |26 | 4 |70 | 74 | 517,192| 11,103
Districts)| | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Total | |90,336 |4,868,157 |32 | 8 | 1 |41 | 7 |52 | 59 | 4,800,175| 77,422
| | | | | | | | | | | | | (1.9.5)
----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
|Rawalpindi | 33 | 947 | 598,371 | 1/2| -- | 1/2| 1 | -- |99 | 99 | 547,827| 6,754
|Jhelam | 26 | 4,103 | 754,585 | 4 | -- | -- | 4 | 4 |92 | 96 | 511,175| 7,576
|Attock | 19 | 6,850 |1,031,962 | 2-1/2| -- | 1 | 3-1/2| 1 |96 | 97 | 519,273| 6,741
|Mianwali | 12 | 7,128 | 748,255 |17 | 2 | -- |19 |38-1/2|42-1/2| 81 | 341,377| 4,866
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
North- |Total Panjab | -- |19,028 |3,133,173 | 6 | 1/2| 1/2| 7 |10 |83 | 93 | 1,919,652| 25,937
West | | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.13.3)
Area +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
|Peshawar | 13 | 6,597 | 894,803 | 5 |33 | 1/2|38-1/2| 2 |59-1/2| 61-1/2| 865,009| 11,375
|Kohat | 18 | 467 | 327,949 | 1/2| -- |12 |12-1/2| 1/2|87 | 87-1/2| 222,690| 2,755
|Bannu | 13 | 11 | 523,688 | -- |24 | -- |24 | -- |76 | 76 | 256,086| 3,040
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|Total | -- | 7,075 |1,746,440 | 3 |24-1/2| 2-1/2|30 | 1 |69 | 70 | 1,343,785| 17,170
| N.W.F.P. | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.15.8)
----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
|Gujranwala | 24 |10,926 |1,179,348 |37 |40 | -- |77 | 4 |19 | 23 | 923,419| 10,497
|Lahore | 21 |13,828 |1,462,108 |31 |43-1/2| 1 |75-1/2| 5 |19-1/2| 24-1/2| 1,036,158| 11,301
|Shahpur | 14 | 6,403 |1,267,566 |14 |55 | -- |69 | 6 |25 | 31 | 648,989| 8,701
|Jhang | 10 |11,588 | 723,733 |36 |46 | -- |82 |16 | 2 | 18 | 515,526| 6,429
|Lyallpur | 9 | 121 |1,373,892 | -- |99 | -- |99 | 1 | -- | 1 | 857,711| 12,736
South- |Montgomery | 10 |10,472 | 815,355 |27 |28 | 1 |56 |25 |19 | 44 | 555,219| 6,225
Western |Multan | 7 |20,132 |1,081,030 |58-1/2|26 | 1 |85-1/2|13-1/2| 1 | 14-1/2| 814,871| 15,865
Plains |Muzaffargarh | 6 |14,053 | 553,643 |36 |33 | 4 |73 |27 | -- | 27 | 569,461| 7,316
|Dera Ghazi | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Khan | 6 | 9,564 |1,035,011 |25-1/2|16 | 2-1/2|42 |53-1/2| 2-1/2| 56 | 499,860| 5,752
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|Total Panjab | -- |97,087 |9,491,686 |28 |46 | 1 |75 |14-1/2|10-1/2| 25 | 6,420,814| 84,822
| districts | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.14.4)
+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
|D.I. Khan | 8 | 795 | 544,746 | 1 |17 | 8 |26 |11 |63 | 74 | 256,120| 3,062
| N.W.F.P. | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.9.0)
----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
|Karnal | 30 | 7,827 |1,148,876 |13 |21 | -- |34 |10 |56 | 66 | 799,787| 10,833
|Delhi[6] | -- | 7,133 | 555,057 |19 |18 | -- |37 | 6 |57 | 63 | 657,604| 8,563
South- |Gurgaon | 26 | 6,594 | 988,613 |13 |10 | 1 |24 | 3-1/2|72-1/2| 76 | 643,177| 12,182
Eastern |Rohtak | 21 | 2,450 | 974,200 | 4-1/2|30 | -- |34-1/2| -- |65-1/2| 65-1/2| 541,489| 9,660
Plains |Hissar | 16 | 720 |2,691,478 | -- |11-1/4| -- |11-1/4| 2-1/4|86-1/2| 88-3/4| 804,809| 8,582
(British |Ferozepore | 21 | 7,940 |2,248,322 | 7 |40-1/2| -- |47-1/2| 2 |50-1/2| 52-1/2| 959,657| 12,066
Districts)| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|Total Panjab | -- |32,664 |8,606,546 | 7 |22-1/2| -- |29-1/2| 3-1/2|67 | 70-1/2| 4,306,523| 61,886
| districts | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.11.6)
----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
[1] Rate per cultivated acre in rupees (Rupee 1 = 16 pence).
[2] = Ladakh, Baltistan, Astor, and Gilgit.
[3] At Jammu.
[4] At Gilgit. Leh 3, Skardo 5.
[5] Including Frontier _Ilaka_ 264,750.
[6] The Delhi district has been broken
up, and, with the exception of the area now administered by the Government of India, has been divided between
Rohtak and Gurgaon.
* * * * *
TABLE III. _Diagrams relating to Cultivation._
PANJAB
[Illustration: (_a_) Harvests and Irrigation
Rabi 59 p.c.
Irrigated Rabi 25/59
Kharif 41 p.c.
Irrigated Kharif 13/41]
[Illustration: (_b_) Classes of Land
Abi 1 p.c.
Canal 24 p.c.
Dry 49 p.c.
Moist 8 p.c.
Well 18 p.c.]
N.W.F. PROVINCE
(_a_) Harvests
Rabi 64 p.c.
Kharif 36 p.c.
[Illustration: (B) Classes of Land
Abi 6 p.c.
Well 2 p.c.
Canal 19 p.c.
Dry 70 p.c.
Moist 3 p.c.]
PANJAB
[Illustration: (_c_) Crops
Wheat 31 p.c.
Other Crops 15-1/2 p.c.
Cotton 4-1/2 p.c.
Other Pulses 6-1/2 p.c.
Fodder 8-1/2 p.c.
Maize 4 p.c.
Millets (grain) 14 p.c.
Gram 16 p.c.]
N.W.F. PROVINCE
[Illustration: (_c_) Crops
Wheat 36 p.c.
Other Crops 19-1/2 p.c.
Other Pulses 3-1/2 p.c.
Fodder 3-1/2 p.c.
Maize 16-1/2 p.c.
Millets 12 p.c.
Cotton 2 p.c.
Gram 7 p.c.]
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.
* * * * *
TABLE IV. _Percentages of Principal Crops_[1].
KEY:
** = (both harvests)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| | | | | | | | |
| | | | Rape | Pulses | | |
| | | |_Toria_|------+------| | |
Zone | Districts |Wheat |Barley| and | |Other |Fodder|Maize |
| | | |_Tara_ | Gram |Pulses| ** | |
| | | |_mira_ | | ** | | |
----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
|Kangra |32 | 7 | 1 | 4 | 4 | -- |21 |
|Simla |31 |15 | -- | -- | 3 | -- |13 |
|Ambala |26 | 2 | 1 |17 | 9 |11 |10-1/2|
|Hoshyarpur |33 | 1-1/2| 1 |17 | 5 | 7 |17-1/2|
Mountain | | | | | | | | |
|Total Panjab |30 | 3 | 1 |13 | 6 | 6 |16 |
and | districts | | | | | | | |
|------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
Submontane| | | | | | | | |
|Hazara N.W.F.P. |26 |10 | 1 |-- |10 | 1-1/2|43 |
Zone |------------------+------+------+-------+-------- ----+------+------+
| | | | | \_________/ | | |
|Kashmir and Jammu |21 | 4 | -- | 7 | -- |38 |
|Indus Valley |29 | 4 | -- | 12 | -- | 7 |
|------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
|Total Kashmir |23 | 4 | -- | 8 | -- |35-1/2| -- |
----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
|Gujrat |42 | 4 | 1 | 8 | 7 | 8 | 2-1/2|
North |Sialkot |43 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 5 |15 | 8 |
Central |Gurdaspur |36 | 4 | 1 | 7 |13 |11 | 8 |
Panjab |Amritsar |36 | 2 | 3 |16 | 3 |20 | 5 |
Plain |Jalandhar |33 | 1 | -- |15 | 7 |23 |10 |
(British |Ludhiana |28 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 8 |11 | 7 |
districts)| | | | | | | | |
|Total |37 | 3 | 1 |11 | 8 |14 | 7 |
----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
|Rawalpindi |41 | 2 | 1 | 1 |19 | 2-1/2| 8 |
|Jhelam |47 | 2 | 2 | 3 |10 | 5 | 1 |
|Attock |50 | 2 | 2 | 9 | 7-1/2| 2-1/2| 2-1/2|
North- |Mianwali |34 | 4 | 3 |19 |10 | 2 | -- |
| | | | | | | | |
West |Total Panjab |43 | 2 | 2 | 7 |11 | 3-1/2| 3 |
| districts | | | | | | | |
Area |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
|Peshawar |36-1/2|16 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 7 |18-1/2|
|Kohat |43 | 2-1/2| 1 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 8 |
|Bannu |49 | 4 | -- |24 | 1/2| 4 | 8 |
| | | | | | | | |
|Total N.W.F.P. |41 |10 | 1 | 8-1/2| 2-1/2| 5 |13-1/2|
----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
|Gujranwala |40 | 3 | 4 |15-1/2| 3 |12 | 2-1/2|
|Lahore |37 | 1 | 6 |16 | 1 |15 | 4-1/2|
|Shahpur |44 | 1 | 7 | 7 | 3 |10 | 2 |
|Jhang |47 | 1 | 2 | 4-1/2| 4 |10 | 2 |
South- |Lyallpur |42-1/2| 1/2| 13 | 8 | 2-1/2| 5 | 4-1/2|
|Montgomery |41 | 1-1/2| 2 |13 | 4-1/2|17 | 3 |
Western |Multan |41 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 |13 | 1/2|
|Muzaffargarh |44-1/2| 3 | 2 | 8 |10 | 7 | -- |
Plains |Dera Ghazi Khan |27 | 1 | 10 | 3-1/2| 5-1/2| 5 | -- |
| | | | | | | | |
|Total Panjab d |40-1/2| 1-1/2| 6 | 9 | 4 |10 | 2 |
| districts | | | | | | | |
|------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
|D.I. Khan N.W.F.P.|31 | 2 | 13 | 8 | 3 | 1/2| -- |
----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
|Karnal |21 | 2 | 5 |26-1/2| 4-1/2| 6-1/2| 5-1/2|
|Rohtak | 8 | 2-1/2| 1 |34-1/2| 7 | 2 | -- |
|Gurgaon | 8 |13 | 1-1/2|20 |12 | 4 | -- |
South- |Hissar | 4 | 7 | 4 |28 | 8 | 4 | -- |
Eastern |Ferozepore |28 | 7 | 4 |31-1/2| 4 | 8 | 2-1/2|
Plains | | | | | | | | |
(British |Total Panjab |14 | 6 | 3 |28-1/2| 7 | 5 | 1-1/2|
Districts)| districts | | | | | | | |
|------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
|Grand total Panjab|31 | 3-1/2| 4 |16 | 6-1/2| 8-1/2| 4 |
| " N.W.F.P.|36 | 8-1/2| 3 | 7 | 3-1/2| 3-1/2|16-1/2|
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
| | | | | | | |
| Millets | | | | | |
|-------+-------| | | |Other | |
| | | Rice |Cotton|Cane |Crops | Districts | Zone
|_Bajra_|_Jowar_| | | | ** | |
| | | | | | | |
+ ------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
| -- | -- |15 | 1/2|1 |14-1/2|Kangra |
| -- | -- | 6 | -- |-- |32 |Simla |
| 1-1/2| 1 | 7 | 6 |2 | 6 |Ambala |
| 1/2| 1 | 4 | 2 |3 | 7-1/2|Hoshyarpur |
| | | | | | | |Mountain
| 1/2| 1/2| 8 | 3 |2 |11 |Total Panjab |
| | | | | | | districts |and
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
| | | | | | | |Submontane
| 1-1/2| 1 | 3 | 1 |-- | 2 |Hazara N.W.F.P. |
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|Zone
| | | | | | | |
| -- | -- | 9 | -- |-- |21 |Kashmir and Jammu |
| -- | -- | 1 | -- |-- |47 |Indus Valley |
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
| -- | 8 | -- | -- | |21-1/2|Total Kashmir |
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
| 15 | 6 | 1 | 1-1/2|1 | 1 |Gujrat |
| 1-1/2| 1-1/2| 6-1/2| 2 |4 | 3-1/2|Sialkot |North
| 1/2| 1/2| 6-1/2| 1 |7 | 4-1/2|Gurdaspur |Central
| -- | -- | 4-1/2| 4 |3 | 3-1/2|Amritsar |Panjab
| -- | -- | -- | 3-1/2|3-1/2| 4 |Jalandhar |Plain
| 1/2| 3 | -- | 2 |2 |12 |Ludhiana |(British
| | | | | | | |districts)
| 3 | 2 | 3 | 2-1/2|3-1/2| 4-1/2|Total |
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
| 17 | 4 | -- | 1 |-- | 3-1/2|Rawalpindi |
| 21 | 2 | -- | 2 |-- | 5 |Jhelam |
| 19 | 2-1/2| -- | 2 |-- | 1 |Attock |
| 19 | 4 | -- | 1/2|-- | 4-1/2|Mianwali |North-
| | | | | | | |
| 19 | 3 | -- | 1-1/2|-- | 5 |Total Panjab | West
| | | | | | | districts |
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------| Area
| 1 | 4-1/2| 1-1/2| 4 |3 | 3 |Peshawar |
| 27-1/2| 2 | 1 | 1 | -- | 3 |Kohat |
| 3 | 1-1/4| 1/2| 1/2|1-1/4| 4 |Bannu |
| | | | | | | |
| 6 | 3 | 1 | 2-1/2|2 | 4 |Total N.W.F.P. |
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
| 2-1/2| 3 | 5 | 5 |2-1/2| 2 |Gujranwala |
| 1 | 1 | 2-1/2| 9 |1 | 5 |Lahore |
| 10 | 3-1/2| 1 | 8 | 1/2| 3 |Shahpur |
| 2 | 8 | 1/2| 5-1/2|-- |13-1/2|Jhang |
| 1/2| 1 | -- | 9 |2-1/2|11 |Lyallpur |South-
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 5 |-- | 7 |Montgomery |
| 4 | 8 | 3 | 9 |-- | 8-1/2|Multan | Western
| 3 | 2 | 7 | 6 |1 | 6-1/2|Muzaffargarh |
| 9 | 23 | 8 | 6 |-- | 2 |Dera Ghazi Khan | Plains
| | | | | | | |
| 3-1/2| 4 | 3 | 7 |1 | 8-1/2|Total Panjab |
| | | | | | | districts |
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
| 22 | 9 | -- | 2 | -- | 9-1/2|D.I. Khan N.W.F.P.|
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
| 5 | 11-1/2| 4 | 6 |2 | 1/2|Karnal |
| 21 | 14 | -- | 6-1/2|2 | 1-1/2|Rohtak |
| 25 | 5 | -- | 8 | 1/2| 3 |Gurgaon |
| 26 | 6-1/2| -- | 3 |-- | 9-1/2|Hissar |South-
| 3 | 6 | -- | -- |-- | 6 |Ferozepore | Eastern
| | | | | | | | Plains
| 15 | 8 | 1/2| 3-1/2| 1/2| 7-1/2|Total Panjab |(British
| | | | | | | districts |Districts)
+-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
| 9 | 5 | 2-1/2| 4-1/2|1-1/2| 4 |Grand total Panjab|
| 8 | 4 | 1 | 2 |1 | 6 | " N.W.F.P.|
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
[1] In case of Panjab districts figures relate to _Kharif_ 1910 and
_Rabi_ 1911.
* * * * *
TABLE V _Revenue and Expenditure_, 1911-12.
+-------------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+
| | Income | Expenditure |
| +---------+---------------+--------+-----------------|
| Heads | | Provincial | | Provincial |
| | +---------------+--------+--------+--------|
| |Total in | |Total in| | |
| |Rs. 000 |Share |Amount |Rs. 000 | Share |Amount |
| | | |in | | |in |
| | | |Rs. 000| | |Rs. 000 |
|-------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------|
|Land Revenue |3,47,92 | Half |1,73,96| 47,76| Whole |47,76 |
|Salt | 38,16 | Nil | -- | 4,82| Nil | -- |
|Stamps | 52,57 | Half | 26,29| 1,77| Half | 89 |
|Excise | 64,00 | Half | 32,00| 1,71| Half | 86 |
|Income-tax | 16,22 | Half | 8,11| 11 | Half | 5 |
|Forests | 13,10 | Whole | 13,10| 7,64| Whole | 7,65 |
|Registration | 3,16 | Whole | 3,16| 1,20| Whole | 1,20 |
|General | | | | | | |
|Administration | -- | -- | -- | 18,33|Various |13,65 |
|Law and Justice | | | | | | |
| --Courts | 4,35 | Whole | 4,35| 42,18| Whole |42,18 |
|Law and Justice | | | | | | |
| --Jails | 3,41 | Whole | 3,41| 12,24| Whole |12,24 |
|Police | 1,80 | Whole | 1,80| 58,57| Whole |58,57 |
|Education | 3,64 | Whole | 3,64| 23,27| Whole |23,27 |
|Irrigation-- | | | | | | |
| Major Works | 2,13,08 | Half |1,06,54| 1,36,42| Half |68,21 |
|Irrigation-- | | | | | | |
| Minor Works | 7,99 |Various| 56 | 11,17|Various |1,07 |
|Civil Works | 6,93 |Various| 6,20| 67,90|Various |62,70 |
|Medical | -- | -- | -- | 21,20| Whole |21,20 |
|All other heads[1] | 27,60 |Nil and| 16,21| 56,96| Whole, |41,29 |
| |various| | |various,| |
| | | | | and | |
| | | | | nil | |
--------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------|
Total |8,03,93 | -- |3,99,33|5,13,25 | -- |4,02,79 |
--------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+
[1] Under Income "Salt," "Tribute," "Interest," "Miscellaneous," and
"All other heads." Under Expenditure "Political," "Scientific,"
"Pensions," "Stationery," "All other items."
INDEX
Abbott, Captain J.; 299, 300
Abbottabad; 302, 303, 355
Adamwahan railway bridge; 46, 283
Adina Beg; 179
Administration, British 1849-1913; 188-195
General; 212-221
Local; 222
Afghan War; 1878-1880 193
Afridis; 196, 297, 309
Agriculture; 101, 102, 143, Tables II, III, IV
Agriculturists, Legislation to protect; 102
Agror; 303
Ahirs; 230, 231
Ahmad Shah; 178, 179
Aitchison, Sir Charles; 194
Akazais; 303
Akbar; 172
Ala Singh, Raja; 273, 274
Ala ud din; 169
Alexander the Great; 161-162
Alexandra railway bridge; 41
Ali Masjid; 356
Alptagin; 168
Altamsh; 170
Alum; 59
Amb; 303
Ambala division; 225-235
district; 233-235
town and cantonment; 347
Ambela; 192, 305, 356
Amritsar district; 249
town; 175, 339, 340
Anandpal Raja; 168
Arains; 242, 245, 248, 252, 279
Aravallis; 50
Archaeology; 200-208
Areas; 2-3
Arjan Guru; 175
Aroras; 105, 106
Asoka; 162, 163
Attock, Fort; 37, 38, 350
Attock district; 257, 258
Aurangzeb; 172, 177
Awans; 105, 254, 258-260, 299-300
Babar; 172, 273
Babusar pass; 301
Bahawalpur State; 280-283
town; 353
Bajaur; 306
Balban; 170
Banda; 178
Banias; 106
Bannu district; 295, 296
town; 355
Bar; 261, 262, 267
Bara river; 298, 309
Baralacha pass; 12, 236
Baramula; 40, 357
Bari Doab Canal, Upper; 135, 249, 251
Lower; 138, 262
Barnala; 179, 353
Bashahr State; 287-290
Baspa river; 288, 289
Bazar valley; 309
Bein torrent; 45
Bhakkar; 258
Bhittannis; 294
Bhupindar Singh, Maharaja of Patiala; 275
Bhure Singh, Raja of Chamba; 286
Bias river; 43-45, 162, 237, 249, 251
railway bridge; 45
Bilaspur State; 288
Biloches; 104, 105, 268, 269
Birmal; 24
Black buck; 94, 95
Black Mountain Expedition; 191
Boltoro glacier; 21
Borax; 60
Boundaries; 3-6
Brahmans; 104, 106, 240
Brijindar Singh, Raja of Faridkot; 280
Buddhism; 114, 115, 169, 236, 289
Bunhar torrent; 254
Burzil pass; 12
Canals; 132-141, 197
Carving in wood and ivory; 154
Castes; 105, 106
Chagarzais; 302
Chail; 29
Chakdarra; 305, 306, 356
Chakki torrent; 45
Chamba State; 245, 246
town; 201, 354
Chamberlain, Sir Neville; 305
Chamkannis; 310, 311
Chandrabhaga river; 2, 41, 286
(see also Chenab)
Chandra Gupta; 162
Chatar Singh, Sardar; 186-187
Chenab river; 41, 247, 249, 252, 261, 266, 267
Cherat; 31, 355
Chilas; 36, 301, 357
Chilianwala; 187, 351
Chingiz Khan; 170
Chini; 44, 288, 354
Chitral; 196, 305, 307, 308, 356
Chitral and Dir levies; 313
Cholera; 101
Chor mountain; 285
Chos; 241
Christians; 119
Chund Bharwana railway bridge; 41
Climate; 64-70
Coal; 58
Coins 208-211
Colleges; 125, 126
Colonization of Canal lands; 136, 139, 140, 263
Co-operative Credit Societies; 197, 199
Crops; 146-150, Tables III-IV
Cultivation; 142-150, Tables II-III
Dalhousie, Lord; 188
Dalhousie hill station; 68, 246, 350
Dalip Singh, Maharaja; 184
Dandot; 58
Dane, Sir Louis; 199
Darbar 1877; 193-333
1903; 333
Coronation 1911; 199, 333, 334
Dards; 107, 108
Darius; 161
Darwesh Khel; 312
Daulat Rao Sindhia; 183
Daur valley; 312
Davies, Sir Henry; 191
Deane, Sir Harold; 197
Degh torrent; 42, 247
Delhi; 169, 199, 205-208, 224, 225, 325-334
Delhi-Ambala-Kalka Railway; 130
Deodar; 80, 86, 302, 307
Dera Gopipur; 44
Dera Ghazi Khan district; 268-270
Dera Ismail Khan district; 294, 295
town and cantonment; 355
Dharmsala; 68, 238, 348
Dhauladhar; 16
Dhunds; 256
Dir; 305-307
Domel; 40
Dorah pass; 22
Dor river; 299, 301
Dost Muhammad, Amir; 184
Drishaks; 270
Dujana State; 283
Dungagali; 355
Durand, Colonel; 194
Durand, Sir Henry; 191
Durand Line; 4, 196, 306, 307, 308
Earthquake of; 1905 197
Education; 119, 121-126
Edwardes, Sir Herbert; 186
Edwardesabad; 355
Egerton, Sir Robert; 191
Ekbhai mountain; 27
Ethnology; 109, 110
Expenditure, Provincial; 219-220, Table V
Exports and Imports; 159
Factories; 156, 157
Famines; 195, 227
Faridkot State; 244, 280
Fateh Singh, Sardar of Kapurthala; 279
Fauna; 90-95
Ferozepore district; 243-245
railway bridge; 46
town and cantonment; 349
Ferozeshah, battle of; 186, 244, 349
Fever, mortality from; 100, 101
Finance; 219-222
Fitzpatrick, Sir Dennis; 195
Flora; 71-85
Fluctuating assessments; 221
Forests; 86-89
Fort Lockhart; 355
Fort Munro; 27, 270
Fossils; 53, 55-57
Fotula; 12
Gaddis; 236
Gajpat Singh, Sardar of Jind; 276
Game; 91-95
Gandamak, treaty of; 193
Gandgarh hills; 302
Ghagar torrent; 46, 47, 227, 231, 233
Ghaibana Sir; 31
Ghakkhars; 168, 169, 254, 256, 300
Ghaznevide raids; 168
Giandari hill; 27
Gilgit; 194, 321, 323
Giri river; 235, 285, 288
Girths; 240
Godwin Austen Mt; 21
Gold; 59, 322
Gomal pass; 25, 312
Gough, Lord; 187
Govind Singh, Guru; 177, 178
Granth Sahib; 175
Grey Inundation Canals; 244
Gujars; 107, 241, 245, 252, 300
Gujranwala district; 249
town; 350
Gujrat battle; 187
district; 252
town; 351
Gulab Singh, Raja; 184, 186, 219, 314, 323
Gulmarg; 357
Gupta Empire; 164
Gurais; 357
Gurchanis; 270
Gurdaspur district; 245, 246
Gurgaon district; 229, 230
Gurkhas; 235, 274, 289
Gurus, Sikh; 173-178
Hakra river; 40
Handicrafts; 152-156
Hangu; 297
Haramukh mountain; 14
Harike ferry; 44
Hari Singh Nalwa, Sardar; 184
Haro river; 38, 258, 299, 301, 302
Harvests; 142
Hasanzais; 303
Hattu mountains; 288
Hazara district; 186, 298-303
Himalaya; 8-20, 67, 68
Hindkis; 299
Hindu Kush; 22, 23, 305, 307
Hindur; 287
Hindus and Hinduism; 114-118, 119, 120
Hira Singh Sir, Raja of Nadha; 278
Hissar district; 226-228
town; 347
History; 160-199
Hiuen Tsang; 165
Hoshyarpur district; 240, 241, 278
Humayun; 172
Hunza town; 357
Hunza and Nagar; 323
Hunza-Nagar levies; 313
war; 194, 195
Ibbetson, Sir Denzil; 197, 198
Imperial Service troops; 276, 277, 279, 283
Income and Expenditure; 219, 286, Table V
Indus river; 34-39, 260, 270, 281, 296, 300, 302
Inundation Canals; 139, 262, 267
Islamabad; 358
Jagatjit Singh, Maharaja of Kapurthala; 279
Jahangir; 173, 175, 208
Jains; 280
Jalandhar district; 241, 242
town and cantonment; 349
Jalandhara kingdom; 241
Jalkot; 36
Jammu State; 107, 314-317
town; 358
Jamna river; 48, 49
Jamna Western Canal; 133, 135
Jamrud; 356
Janjuas; 254
Jassa Singh, Ahluwaha Sardar; 279
Jats; 103, 104, 234, 240, 242, 245, 248, 249, 252, 254
Jhang district; 265, 266
Jhelam Canal, Lower; 133, 137, 138, 261, 265
Upper; 138, 252
Jhelam district; 253, 254
river; 39, 40, 253, 254, 261, 265, 301
town and cantonment; 351
Jind; 271, 276, 277
Joint Stock Companies; 157, 158
Jowakis; 297, 310
Jubbal State; 287
Kabul; 22, 165
river; 23, 37, 298
canal; 140, 298
Kafiristan range; 307
Kagan; 40, 301
Kaha torrent; 270
Kaisargarh mountain; 26
Kalabagh; 38, 39, 295
Kalachitta range; 30, 258
Kalsia State; 280
Kamalia; 353
Kambohs; 263
Kangra district; 235-240
town and fort; 168, 171, 183, 349
Kanjutis; 108
Kankar; 60, 127
Kaoshan pass; 22
Kapurthala State; 278, 279
town; 356
Karakoram; 20, 324
Karnal district; 230-232
town; 348
Kashmir, Early History; 165, 166, 172
Forests; 89
Population; 99, 100, 106, 107
Territories; 2, 12, 14, 16, 20, 21, 193, 314, 324
Kashmiri Pandits; 107
Kasranis; 270
Katas; 201
Kathias; 263
Keonthal State; 287
Keppel, Sir George Roos; 197
Khaibar; 23, 309
Rifles; 308, 309, 313
Khairimurat hills; 30, 258
Khanki weir; 195, 310
Khanwah Canal; 263
Kharrals; 263
Khatris; 105, 106
Khattaks; 297, 298
Kheora Salt Mine; 51, 351
Khojas; 104
Khosas; 170
Khost; 311
Khowar; 308
Khurmana river; 311
Khushalgarh railway bridge; 130
Kila Drosh; 307, 308
Kirana hill; 261
Kishnganga river; 40, 261, 319
Kohala; 40, 257
Kohat district; 296-298
salt; 57, 58, 296
town and cantonment; 356
Kolahoi mountain; 14
Kuka rising; 192, 193
Kulu; 17, 235, 237, 238
Kunar river; 23, 37, 307
Kunawar; 289
Kunhar 40, 301
Kurram militia; 313
river; 39, 260, 295, 311
valley; 24, 296
Ladakh; 64, 65, 109, 112, 319-321
Lagharis; 270
Lahore city; 169, 173, 334-339
district; 251, 252
division; 245
railway bridge; 43
Lahul; 64, 236
Lake, Lord; 183
Land Alienation Act, XIII of 1900; 196
Land Revenue; 220, 221
Landai river; 38
Landi Kotal; 357
Languages; 110-113
Larji; 43
Lawrence Memorial School; 234
Lawrence, Sir Henry; 186, 188
Sir John; 188-191
Legislative Council; 195, 216
Leh; 35, 64, 65, 358
Leprosy; 101
Liddar valley; 40
Lieutenant Governors; 188-199
Local Self Government; 195, 217, 218
Lohars; 106, 152
Loharu State; 283
Lolab valley; 40
Lowari pass; 307, 308
Lower Bari Doab Canal; 138, 262, 267
Chenab Canal; 136, 137, 195, 263, 265
Jhelam Canal; 137, 138, 197, 260
Swat Canal; 140, 141, 298
Ludhiana district; 242, 243
town; 153, 349
Lulusar lake; 301
Lunds; 270
Luri bridge; 45
Lyall, Sir James; 194
Lyallpur district; 263, 264
town; 353
Macleod, Sir Donald; 191
Mahaban mountain; 36
Mahirakula; 164
Mahmud of Ghazni; 168
Mahsud Wazirs; 196, 312
Malakand pass; 299, 305, 306, 357
Malerkotla State; 283
town; 354
Mali ka parvat; 301
Malka; 305
Mallagoris; 308, 309
Mamdot; 244
Mamunds; 306
Manali; 43, 237
Mandi State; 283, 284
town; 354
Mangal; 287
Mansehra; 356
Mardan; 298, 299
Markanda torrent; 47
Martand temple; 166, 358
Marwats; 296
Mazaris; 270
Mazhbis; 106
Meghs; 107
Menander; 163, 164
Mendicants; 106
Meos; 229
Metals; 59
Mianwali district; 258-260
Miram Shah; 357
Miranzai; 297
Moghal Empire; 171-180
Mohmands; 308, 309
Mongol invasions; 170
Montgomery, Sir Robert; 191
Montgomery district; 261, 262
town; 353
Mudki battle field; 186, 282
Muhammad Ghori; 169
Muhammad Tughlak; 170, 171
Muhammadan Architecture; 204-208
Muhammadan States; 280-283
Muhammadans; 118, 119, 252, 262, 291
Muin ul Mulk; 179
Mulraj, Diwan; 186-282
Multan district; 266, 267
division; 262
Multan city; 154, 166, 183, 186, 340, 341
district; 266-267
division; 262
Municipalities; 217
Murree; 68, 256, 303, 351, 352
Musa ka Musalla mountain; 301
Musallis; 106
Mutiny of 1857; 227
Muzaffargarh district; 267, 268
Nabha State; 271, 277, 278
town; 354
Nadir Shah; 178
Nahan State; 285
town; 354
Nalagarh State; 207
Nanga parvat (mountain); 12
Naraina, battlefield of; 232
Nardak; 232
Nathiagali; 356
Naushahra; 298, 356
North West Frontier Province; 197, 291-313
North Western Railway; 120-131
Nun and Kun peaks; 12, 324
Occupations; 101, 102, 105, 106, 152-156
O'Dwyer, Sir Michael; 199
Ohind; 37
Orakzais; 196, 297, 309-311
Otu weir; 47
Pabar river; 288
Pabbi hills; 252
Paharpur canal; 292
Paiwar Kotal; 24
Pakhli plain; 302
Pakpattan; 353
Palosi; 36
Pangi; 14, 286
Panipat; 172, 179, 232, 348
Panjkora river; 38, 306, 307
Panjnad river; 41, 382
Parachas; 106
Parachinar; 311, 357
Pataudi State; 283
Pathans; 105, 260, 294, 299, 300, 304, 311
Patiala State; 180, 271-274
town; 354
Pattan Munara; 354
Payech, see Payer
Payer; 201, 358
Peshawar city; 160, 164, 169, 184, 341, 342
district; 298, 299
Petroleum; 59
Phillaur; 46, 243
Phulkian States; 196, 271-278
Pihowa; 232, 348
Pirghal mountain; 24
Piti, _See_ Spiti
Plague; 97-99, 100, 195, 245
Population; 96-113
Pottery; 152, 156
Powindahs; 25
Pressure, barometric; 65-67
Punch; 358
Railways; 128-131
Rajput Hill Chiefs (Simla); 288
Rajputs; 104, 240, 241, 245, 248, 254, 288
Raldang mountain; 288
Rampur ;45, 289
Ranbir Singh, Maharaja of Jind; 277
Ranjit Singh, Maharaja; 181-184
Ravi river; 41-43, 247, 251, 262, 266, 267, 286
Rawalpindi cantonment and town; 256, 352
district; 255-257
division; 252
Religions, Kashmir; 114
N. W. F. Province; 114
Panjab; 114-117
Ripon, Lord; 195
Ripudaman Singh, Maharaja of Nabha; 270
Rivaz, Sir Charles 197
Rivers; 32-49
Road, Grand Trunk; 127
Roads; 127, 128
Rogi cliffs; 45
Rohtak district; 228, 229
Roos-Keppel, Sir George; 197
Rotang pass; 14, 236
Rupar; 46, 348
Sabaktagin; 167, 168
Sadik Muhammad Khan, Nawab of Bahawalpur; 281, 282
Sad Istragh mountains; 22
Safarmulk lake; 301
Safed Koh range; 24, 311
Saiyyids; 105, 304
Sakesar; 29, 352
Sakki stream; 250
Salt; 57, 58
Salt Range ;29, 30, 253, 254, 257, 258, 262
Geology of; 51-53
Flora of; 76, 77
Samana range; 297
Rifles; 297, 298
Sam Ranizai; 306
Sangrur; 276, 354
Sansar Chand, Raja; 183
Sapphires; 60
Saraj; 235, 237
Sarusti torrent; 46, 47, 231, 232
canal; 47
Sasserla; 20
Sattis; 256
Shah Alam, Emperor; 181
Shahjahan; 173
Shah Shuja; 184
Shahpur district; 260-262
Shawal; 24
Shekhbudin; 31, 356
Shekhs; 105
Sher Khan; 170
Sher Singh Maharaja; 184
Shigri glacier; 236
Shipki pass; 45
Shooting; 94, 95
Shuidar mountain; 24
Shyok river; 36
Sialkot district; 247
town and cantonment; 164, 350
Sials; 266
Sidhnai canal; 139, 267
Sikandar Lodi; 171
Sikaram mountain; 24
Sikh Jats; 104, 250, 252, 276, 280
wars; 186, 187
religion; 117, 118
Sil torrent; 258
Simla district; 254
hill station; 67, 68, 342-344
Hill States; 287-290
Sind valley; 40
Sirhind canal; 135, 136, 195, 227, 245, 271, 275, 276, 280
Sirhind, town; 177, 180, 354, 355
Sirmur State; 285
Siwaliks; 27, 52, 53
Skardo; 36, 321
Smallpox; 101
Soan torrent (Hoshyarpur); 241
(Rawalpindi), _see_ Sohan
Sobraon, battle of; 186
Sohag Para Canals; 262
Sohan torrent; 38, 253, 256
Southern Panjab Railway; 130
Spiti; 55, 235, 236
river; 45, 288
Stupas; 202
Suds; 106
Suliman range; 26, 27, 270, 290
Sultanpur (Kulu); 238
Sultanpur (Kapurthala); 278
Sunars; 106
Surindar Bikram Parkash, late Raja of Sirmur; 285, 286
Sutlej inundation canals; 267
river; 45, 46, 245, 262, 266, 281, 288
Takht i Suliman mountain; 26
hill (Kashmir); 318
Tamerlane. _See_ Timur
Tanawal; 302, 303
Tanawal hills; 302
Tarkanris; 307
Tarkhans (carpenters); 106, 152
Teri; 296
Thakkars; 107
Thal desert; 149, 259-261, 262, 265, 267
Thal (Kohat); 297, 311, 356
Thandiani; 356
Thanesar; 165, 168, 232, 348
Tilla hill; 29
Timur (Tamerlane); 171
Tirach Mir mountain; 22, 308
Tirah Campaign; 176
Tiwanas; 260
Tochi valley; 24, 296
Tons, river; 48
Torrents, action of; 47, 48
Trade; 159
Traders; 105, 106
Tribal militias; 312
Triple Canal Project; 138, 197
Tumans Biloch; 270
Turis; 311
Uch; 355
Uchiri range; 307
Udyana; 304
Ujh torrent; 42
Umra Khan; 196
Unhar river; 302
University, Panjab; 125, 126
Upper Bari Doab Canal; 135, 191, 247, 249, 251
Chenab Canal; 138, 139, 249
Jhelam Canal; 138, 139, 252
Swat Canal; 141, 298
Utman Khel; 306
Vaccination; 101
Wana; 24, 196, 312, 357
Wattus; 263
Waziristan; 312
hills; 24
militias; 313
Wazirs Darwesh Khel; 312
Madsud; 312
Weavers; 102, 152, 154
Wellesley, Marquis of; 182
Arthur; 183
Wells; 143, 144
Western Jamna Canal; 135, 227, 232, 273, 276
Wular lake; 40
Yakub Khan, Amir; 194
Yarkhun river; 305, 307
Yasin river; 307
Young, Sir Mackworth; 195
Yusafzais; 299, 304, 305, 306
Zaimukhts; 310
Zakaria Khan; 178
Zakha Khel; 309
Zamzama gun; 187
Zanskar; 320
Himalaya; 10, 286
river; 36
Zojila; 12
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