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=                            Information                             =
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                            Introduction
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Information is an abstract concept that refers to something which has
the power to inform.  At the most fundamental level, it pertains to
the interpretation (perhaps formally) of that which may be sensed, or
their abstractions.  Any natural process that is not completely random
and any observable pattern in any medium can be said to convey some
amount of information.  Whereas digital signals and other data use
discrete signs to convey information, other phenomena and artifacts
such as analogue signals, poems, pictures, music or other sounds, and
currents convey information in a more continuous form.  Information is
not knowledge itself, but the meaning that may be derived from a
representation through interpretation.

The concept of 'information' is relevant or connected to various
concepts, including constraint, communication, control, data, form,
education, knowledge, meaning, understanding, mental stimuli, pattern,
perception, proposition, representation, and entropy.

Information is often processed iteratively: Data available at one step
are processed into information to be interpreted and processed at the
next step.  For example, in written text each symbol or letter conveys
information relevant to the word it is part of, each word conveys
information relevant to the phrase it is part of, each phrase conveys
information relevant to the sentence it is part of, and so on until at
the final step information is interpreted and becomes knowledge in a
given domain.  In a digital signal, bits may be interpreted into the
symbols, letters, numbers, or structures that convey the information
available at the next level up.  The key characteristic of information
is that it is subject to interpretation and processing.

The derivation of information from a signal or message may be thought
of as the resolution of ambiguity or uncertainty that arises during
the interpretation of patterns within the signal or message.

Information may be structured as data. Redundant data can be
compressed up to an optimal size, which is the theoretical limit of
compression.

The information available through a collection of data may be derived
by analysis.  For example, a restaurant collects data from every
customer order. That information may be analyzed to produce knowledge
that is put to use when the business subsequently wants to identify
the most popular or least popular dish.

Information can be transmitted in time, via data storage, and space,
via communication and telecommunication. Information is expressed
either as the content of a message or through direct or indirect
observation. That which is perceived can be construed as a message in
its own right, and in that sense, all information is always conveyed
as the content of a message.

Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and
interpretation (for example, information may be encoded into a
sequence of signs, or transmitted via a signal). It can also be
encrypted for safe storage and communication.

The uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of
occurrence. Uncertainty is proportional to the negative logarithm of
the probability of occurrence. Information theory takes advantage of
this by concluding that more uncertain events require more information
to resolve their uncertainty. The bit is a typical unit of
information. It is 'that which reduces uncertainty by half'. Other
units such as the nat may be used. For example, the information
encoded in one "fair" coin flip is log2(2/1) = 1 bit, and in two fair
coin flips is log2(4/1) = 2 bits. A 2011 'Science' article estimates
that 97% of technologically stored information was already in digital
bits in 2007 and that the year 2002 was the beginning of the digital
age for information storage (with digital storage capacity bypassing
analogue for the first time).


                             Etymology
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The English word "information" comes from Middle French
'enformacion/informacion/information' 'a criminal investigation' and
its etymon, Latin 'informatiō(n)' 'conception, teaching, creation'.

In English, "information" is an uncountable mass noun.


                         Information theory
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Information theory is the scientific study of the quantification,
storage, and communication of information. The field itself was
fundamentally established by the work of Claude Shannon in the 1940s,
with earlier contributions by Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley in the
1920s. The field is at the intersection of probability theory,
statistics, computer science, statistical mechanics, information
engineering, and electrical engineering.

A key measure in information theory is entropy. Entropy quantifies the
amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or
the outcome of a random process. For example, identifying the outcome
of a fair coin flip (with two equally likely outcomes) provides less
information (lower entropy) than specifying the outcome from a roll of
a die (with six equally likely outcomes). Some other important
measures in information theory are mutual information, channel
capacity, error exponents, and relative entropy. Important sub-fields
of information theory include source coding, algorithmic complexity
theory, algorithmic information theory, and information-theoretic
security.

There is another opinion regarding the universal definition of
information. It lies in the fact that the concept itself has changed
along with the change of various historical epochs, and to find such a
definition, it is necessary to find standard features and patterns of
this transformation. For example, researchers in the field of
information Petrichenko E. A. and Semenova V. G., based on a
retrospective analysis of changes in the concept of information, give
the following universal definition: "Information is a form of
transmission of human experience (knowledge)." In their opinion, the
change in the essence of the concept of information occurs after
various breakthrough technologies for the transfer of experience
(knowledge), i.e. the appearance of writing, the printing press, the
first encyclopedias, the telegraph, the development of cybernetics,
the creation of a microprocessor, the Internet, smartphones, etc. Each
new form of experience transfer is a synthesis of the previous ones.
That is why we see such a variety of definitions of information,
because, according to the law of dialectics "negation-negation", all
previous ideas about information are contained in a "filmed" form and
in its modern representation.

Applications of fundamental topics of information theory include
source coding/data compression (e.g. for ZIP files), and channel
coding/error detection and correction (e.g. for DSL). Its impact has
been crucial to the success of the Voyager missions to deep space, the
invention of the compact disc, the feasibility of mobile phones and
the development of the Internet. The theory has also found
applications in other areas, including statistical inference,
cryptography, neurobiology, perception, linguistics, the evolution and
function of molecular codes (bioinformatics), thermal physics, quantum
computing, black holes, information retrieval, intelligence gathering,
plagiarism detection, pattern recognition, anomaly detection
and even art creation.


                          As sensory input
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Often information can be viewed as a type of input to an organism or
system. Inputs are of two kinds. Some inputs are important to the
function of the organism (for example, food) or system (energy) by
themselves. In his book 'Sensory Ecology' biophysicist David B.
Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are
important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can
be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time
(and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of
association with other information but eventually there must be a
connection to a causal input.

In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must
be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy
inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system. For
example, light is mainly (but not only, e.g. plants can grow in the
direction of the light source) a causal input to plants but for
animals it only provides information. The colored light reflected from
a flower is too weak for photosynthesis but the visual system of the
bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to
guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or
pollen, which are causal inputs, a nutritional function.


                  As representation and complexity
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The cognitive scientist and applied mathematician Ronaldo Vigo argues
that information is a concept that requires at least two related
entities to make quantitative sense. These are, any dimensionally
defined category of objects S, and any of its subsets R. R, in
essence, is a representation of S, or, in other words, conveys
representational (and hence, conceptual) information about S. Vigo
then defines the amount of information that R conveys about S as the
rate of change in the complexity of S whenever the objects in R are
removed from S. Under "Vigo information", pattern, invariance,
complexity, representation, and informationfive fundamental constructs
of universal scienceare unified under a novel mathematical framework.
Among other things, the framework aims to overcome the limitations of
Shannon-Weaver information when attempting to characterize and measure
subjective information.


            As an influence that leads to transformation
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Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or
transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for
a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern.
Consider, for example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern
that influences the formation and development of an organism without
any need for a conscious mind. One might argue though that for a human
to consciously define a pattern, for example a nucleotide, naturally
involves conscious information processing. However, the existence of
unicellular and multicellular organisms, with the complex biochemistry
that leads, among other events, to the existence of enzymes and
polynucleotides that interact maintaining the biological order and
participating in the development of multicellular organisms, precedes
by millions of years the emergence of human consciousness and the
creation of the scientific culture that produced the chemical
nomenclature.

Systems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense,
assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind,
and patterns circulating (due to feedback) in the system can be called
information. In other words, it can be said that information in this
sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not
created or presented for that purpose. For example, Gregory Bateson
defines "information" as a "difference that makes a difference".

If, however, the premise of "influence" implies that information has
been perceived by a conscious mind and also interpreted by it, the
specific context associated with this interpretation may cause the
transformation of the information into knowledge. Complex definitions
of both "information" and "knowledge" make such semantic and logical
analysis difficult, but the condition of "transformation" is an
important point in the study of information as it relates to
knowledge, especially in the business discipline of knowledge
management. In this practice, tools and processes are used to assist a
knowledge worker in performing research and making decisions,
including steps such as:
* Review information to effectively derive value and meaning
* Reference metadata if available
* Establish relevant context, often from many possible contexts
* Derive new knowledge from the information
* Make decisions or recommendations from the resulting knowledge

Stewart (2001) argues that transformation of information into
knowledge is critical, lying at the core of value creation and
competitive advantage for the modern enterprise.

In a biological framework, Mizraji  has described information as an
entity emerging from the interaction of patterns with receptor systems
(eg: in molecular or neural receptors capable of interacting with
specific patterns, information emerges from those interactions). In
addition, he has incorporated the idea of "information catalysts",
structures where emerging information promotes the transition from
pattern recognition to goal-directed action (for example, the specific
transformation of a substrate into a product by an enzyme, or auditory
reception of words and the production of an oral response)

The Danish Dictionary of Information Terms argues that information
only provides an answer to a posed question. Whether the answer
provides knowledge depends on the informed person. So a generalized
definition of the concept should be: "Information" = An answer to a
specific question".

When Marshall McLuhan speaks of media and their effects on human
cultures, he refers to the structure of artifacts that in turn shape
our behaviors and mindsets. Also, pheromones are often said to be
"information" in this sense.


                Technologically mediated information
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These sections are using measurements of data rather than information,
as information cannot be directly measured.


As of 2007
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It is estimated that the world's technological capacity to store
information grew from 2.6 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1986 -
which is the informational equivalent to less than one 730-MB CD-ROM
per person (539 MB per person) - to 295 (optimally compressed)
exabytes in 2007. This is the informational equivalent of almost 61
CD-ROM per person in 2007.

The world's combined technological capacity to receive information
through one-way broadcast networks was the informational equivalent of
174 newspapers per person per day in 2007.

The world's combined effective capacity to exchange information
through two-way telecommunication networks was the informational
equivalent of 6 newspapers per person per day in 2007.

As of 2007, an estimated 90% of all new information is digital, mostly
stored on hard drives.


As of 2020
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The total amount of data created, captured, copied, and consumed
globally is forecast to increase rapidly, reaching 64.2 zettabytes in
2020. Over the next five years up to 2025, global data creation is
projected to grow to more than 180 zettabytes.


                             As records
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Records are specialized forms of information. Essentially, records are
information produced consciously or as by-products of business
activities or transactions and retained because of their value.
Primarily, their value is as evidence of the activities of the
organization but they may also be retained for their informational
value. Sound records management ensures that the integrity of records
is preserved for as long as they are required.

The international standard on records management, ISO 15489, defines
records as "information created, received, and maintained as evidence
and information by an organization or person, in pursuance of legal
obligations or in the transaction of business". The International
Committee on Archives (ICA) Committee on electronic records defined a
record as, "recorded information produced or received in the
initiation, conduct or completion of an institutional or individual
activity and that comprises content, context and structure sufficient
to provide evidence of the activity".

Records may be maintained to retain corporate memory of the
organization or to meet legal, fiscal or accountability requirements
imposed on the organization. Willis expressed the view that sound
management of business records and information delivered "...six key
requirements for good corporate governance...transparency;
accountability; due process; compliance; meeting statutory and common
law requirements; and security of personal and corporate information."


                             Semiotics
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Michael Buckland has classified "information" in terms of its uses:
"information as process", "information as knowledge", and "information
as thing".

Beynon-Davies explains the multi-faceted concept of information in
terms of signs and signal-sign systems. Signs themselves can be
considered in terms of four inter-dependent levels, layers or branches
of semiotics: pragmatics, semantics, syntax, and empirics. These four
layers serve to connect the social world on the one hand with the
physical or technical world on the other.

Pragmatics is concerned with the purpose of communication. Pragmatics
links the issue of signs with the context within which signs are used.
The focus of pragmatics is on the intentions of living agents
underlying communicative behaviour. In other words, pragmatics link
language to action.

Semantics is concerned with the meaning of a message conveyed in a
communicative act. Semantics considers the content of communication.
Semantics is the study of the meaning of signs - the association
between signs and behaviour. Semantics can be considered as the study
of the link between symbols and their referents or concepts -
particularly the way that signs relate to human behavior.

Syntax is concerned with the formalism used to represent a message.
Syntax as an area studies the form of communication in terms of the
logic and grammar of sign systems. Syntax is devoted to the study of
the form rather than the content of signs and sign systems.

Nielsen (2008) discusses the relationship between semiotics and
information in relation to dictionaries. He introduces the concept of
lexicographic information costs and refers to the effort a user of a
dictionary must make to first find, and then understand data so that
they can generate information.

Communication normally exists within the context of some social
situation. The social situation sets the context for the intentions
conveyed (pragmatics) and the form of communication. In a
communicative situation intentions are expressed through messages that
comprise collections of inter-related signs taken from a language
mutually understood by the agents involved in the communication.
Mutual understanding implies that agents involved understand the
chosen language in terms of its agreed syntax and semantics. The
sender codes the message in the language and sends the message as
signals along some communication channel (empirics). The chosen
communication channel has inherent properties that determine outcomes
such as the speed at which communication can take place, and over what
distance.


                      Physics and determinacy
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The existence of information about a closed system is a major concept
in both classical physics and quantum mechanics, encompassing the
ability, real or theoretical, of an agent to predict the future state
of a system based on knowledge gathered during its past and present.
Determinism is a philosophical theory holding that causal
determination can predict all future events, positing a fully
predictable universe described by classical physicist Pierre-Simon
Laplace as "the effect of its past and the cause of its future".

Quantum physics instead encodes information as a wave function, which
prevents observers from directly identifying all of its possible
measurements. Prior to the publication of Bell's theorem, determinists
reconciled with this behavior using hidden variable theories, which
argued that the information necessary to predict the future of a
function 'must' exist, even if it is not accessible for humans; A view
surmised by Albert Einstein with the assertion that "God does not play
dice".

Modern astronomy cites the mechanical sense of information in the
black hole information paradox, positing that, because the complete
evaporation of a black hole into Hawking radiation leaves nothing
except an expanding cloud of homogeneous particles, this results in
the irrecoverability of any information about the matter to have
originally crossed the event horizon, violating both classical and
quantum assertions against the ability to destroy information.


                The application of information study
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The information cycle (addressed as a whole or in its distinct
components) is of great concern to information technology, information
systems, as well as information science. These fields deal with those
processes and techniques pertaining to information capture (through
sensors) and generation (through computation, formulation or
composition), processing (including encoding, encryption, compression,
packaging), transmission (including all telecommunication methods),
presentation (including visualization / display methods), storage
(such as magnetic or optical, including holographic methods), etc.

Information visualization (shortened as InfoVis) depends on the
computation and digital representation of data, and assists users in
pattern recognition and anomaly detection.

Internet map 1024.jpg|Partial map of the Internet, with nodes
representing IP addresses
Structure of the Universe.jpg|Galactic (including dark) matter
distribution in a cubic section of the Universe
Attractor Poisson Saturne.jpg|Visual representation of a strange
attractor, with converted data of its fractal structure


Information security (shortened as InfoSec) is the ongoing process of
exercising due diligence to protect information, and information
systems, from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, destruction,
modification, disruption or distribution, through algorithms and
procedures focused on monitoring and detection, as well as incident
response and repair.

Information analysis is the process of inspecting, transforming, and
modeling information, by converting raw data into actionable
knowledge, in support of the decision-making process.

Information quality (shortened as InfoQ) is the potential of a dataset
to achieve a specific (scientific or practical) goal using a given
empirical analysis method.

Information communication represents the convergence of informatics,
telecommunication and audio-visual media & content.


                              See also
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* Accuracy and precision
* Complex adaptive system
* Complex system
* Data storage device#Recording media
* Engram
* Free Information Infrastructure
* Freedom of information
* Informatics
* Information and communication technologies
* Information architecture
* Information broker
* Information continuum
* Information ecology
* Information engineering
* Information geometry
* Information inequity
* Information infrastructure
* Information management
* Information metabolism
* Information overload
* Information quality (InfoQ)
* Information science
* Information sensitivity
* Information technology
* Information theory
* Information warfare
* Infosphere
* Lexicographic information cost
* Library science
* Meme
* Philosophy of information
* Quantum information
* Receiver operating characteristic
* Satisficing


                          Further reading
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*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Machlup, F. and U. Mansfield, 'The Study of information :
interdisciplinary messages'. 1983, New York: Wiley. xxii, 743 p.
*
*
*
*


                           External links
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* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information-semantic/ Semantic
Conceptions of Information] Review by Luciano Floridi for the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/NEGENTROPY.html Principia Cybernetica
entry on negentropy]
* [https://wp.optics.arizona.edu/rfrieden/fisher-information/ Fisher
Information, a New Paradigm for Science: Introduction, Uncertainty
principles, Wave equations, Ideas of Escher, Kant, Plato and Wheeler.]
This essay is continually revised in the light of ongoing research.
*
[http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/how-much-info-2003/index.htm
How Much Information? 2003]  an attempt to estimate how much new
information is created each year (study was produced by faculty and
students at the School of Information Management and Systems at the
University of California at Berkeley)
*  [http://www.informationsordbogen.dk Informationsordbogen.dk] The
Danish Dictionary of Information Terms / Informationsordbogen


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